Concept Analysis of Pain Free Essays

string(82) " muscles moving and to later decrease pain as it relates to contributing factors\." Concept Analysis of Pain Kwanei Holloway Austin Peay State University Abstract Pain has always been a major factor in healthcare. This paper will describe pain as it relates to nursing, medicine, and physical therapy. All of the information gathered is analyzed in reference to how pain relates to hospital stay, rehabilitation, and prevention. We will write a custom essay sample on Concept Analysis of Pain or any similar topic only for you Order Now I will ultimately give an overall picture of the importance of pain and how it relates to nursing as well as other disciplines. Introduction This paper is a concept analysis of what is known as the fifth vital sign PAIN. As stated by Hsiao, Wu, Chen (2013), Nursing staff are the major group of healthcare professionals who perform crucial functions in delivering nursing care to inpatients. I will attempt to describe pain as it relates to nursing, medicine, and physical therapy. When selecting a concept, I began by thinking what is an important factor in the nursing field and could be analyzed in more detail. Pain is a factor that is thought of differently by many. It is a very subjective factor and that applies to the patients, physicians, and nurses. Yes, it is the patient that feels the pain but it is the physician who writes the orders and the nurse who transcribes it. I then figured that this area of nursing practice would be a great concept to analyze. Pain is a feeling triggered in the nervous system. Pain may be sharp or dull. It may come and go, or it may be constant. You may feel pain in one area of your body, such as your back, abdomen or chest or you may feel pain all over, such as when your muscles ache from the flu. Pain can be helpful in diagnosing a problem. Without pain, you might seriously hurt yourself without knowing it, or you might not realize you have a medical problem that needs treatment. Once you take care of the problem, pain usually goes away. However, sometimes pain goes on for weeks, months or even years. This is called chronic pain. Sometimes chronic pain is due to an ongoing cause, such as cancer or arthritis (â€Å"Pain†). In the nursing field as well as any other areas of healthcare, pain is a vital factor when dealing with the delivery of care. It is the responsibility of he physician to ensure relief from pain by writing the orders, it is the responsibility of the nurse to carry out the orders and give the pain medication, and in the area of physical therapy it is their responsibility to ensure that the patient is medicated to retrieve the best results while in therapy. Purpose and Method The purposes are to define what pain is considered to be in relationship to the patient, nurse, physician, and physical ther apist. It is also, to find out the subjectiveness of the fifth vital sign and to explore pain as it relates to hospitalization. Walker Avant (2005) guided this concept analysis study. Pain in Nursing Almost 35 million patients were discharged from U. S. hospitals in 2004; of these patients, 46 percent had a surgical procedure and 16 percent had one or more diagnostic procedures. Pain is common, and expected, after surgery. Recent data suggest 80 percent of patients experience pain postoperatively with between 11 and 20 percent experiencing severe pain, (Wells, Pasero, Mcraffery, 2008). There are many contributing factors as pain relates to nursing. Pain is the main factor that contributes to a person deciding to seek medical attention. It is very important to include this as a part of an assessment because it can affect so many other things. It can cause a blood pressure to be elevated, it can increase a blood glucose, and can cause an overall disturbance in the patients’ hospital stay or ADL’s. In nursing our aim is to provide comfort and surrccome to the patients’ needs as a part of their overall care plan. As stated by Wells, Pasero, Mcraffery, 2008, inadequately managed pain can lead to adverse physical and psychological patient outcomes for individual patients and their families. Continuous, unrelieved pain activates the pituitary-adrenal axis, which can suppress the immune system and result in postsurgical infection and poor wound healing. Pain in Medicine Medical professionals have a big impact on pain as it relates to healthcare. Physicians have to generate a care plan that will ultimately be in the favor of the patient as far as relieving the pain in the most appropriate way. This is achieved by not altering consciousness, normal ADL’s, and in the correct combination with other medications. The board strongly urges physicians and surgeons to view effective pain management as a high priority in all patients, including children, the elderly, and patients who are terminally ill. Pain should be assessed and treated promptly, effectively and for as long as pain persists. The medical management of pain should be based on up-to-date knowledge about pain, pain assessment and pain treatment (â€Å"Guidelines for prescribing,† 2007). Nociception is the term used to describe the neural processes by which a noxious substance or a tissue damaging event such as surgical incision is perceived as pain (Fig 1). This is described in four stages, transduction, transmission, perception and modulation. Nociception involves a complex interaction between the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central nervous system (CNS) as well as an evaluation of patients’ pre and post-operative psychological and environmental influences (Wood, 2010). Pain in Physical Therapy Due to factors such as surgery, stroke, or basic deconditioning there is a need for rehabilitation. Physical Therapist play an essential role in the patients’ road to recovery. A patient-centered rehabilitative approach that emphasizes restoration of normal movement and function incorporates physical therapy as a vital component of the collaborative approach required for effective pain management (â€Å"Physical therapy for,† 1998). Overall therapy is lessened with pain. Patients move slower and are less involved with therapy if pain is present. Therapy is put into place to get those muscles moving and to later decrease pain as it relates to contributing factors. You read "Concept Analysis of Pain" in category "Essay examples" These factors may include surgeries (hip or knee replacements), amputations (AKA, BKA, Metatarsal, and digital), and weakness (from CVA, CABG, and decrease movements). Patients with pain perceive an equivalent level of exertion at a significantly lower level of performance, a finding accounted for by both central (cardiorespiratory) and peripheral (muscle strength and recruitment) factors. Inactivity also deprives bones, joint cartilage, and connective tissue of the mechanical stress necessary to maintain tensile and compressive strength and elasticity. Evidence is building that motor control and proprioceptive efficiency are altered, balance is compromised, and reaction times are slower in persons who are unfit or have pain (â€Å"Physical therapy for†, 1998). Essential/Critical Attributes According to Cheng, Foster Huang, (2003) the critical attributes of pain include: (a) unpleasant and distressful experiences originating from physical sensation and having both positive and negative meanings for an individual; (b) an individual human experience; (c) a state of feeling in both sensation and emotion (verbal), and behavioral components; (d) physical and psychological responses to the stimulus; (e) function of pain, including protective and warning signs; (f) pain responses are learned and influenced by personality, environment, emotions, social and culture. Model Case Mrs. K is a 37 year old female with recent diagnosis of breast cancer. She has recently undergone a mastectomy and is now in the hospital for recovery. Upon the nurses’ hourly rounds she discovered Mrs. K crying, when asked what the nurse could do to help she stated that â€Å"I am in pain and can’t believe that I only have one breast now, I’m ugly and would have never thought it would hurt this bad†. The nurse consoled her and brought pain meds. When returning the patient thanked the nurse for the talk and she stated that the pain had eased and she always thought she would have breast cancer due to both her mom and grandmother having it. Related Case Mrs. T is a 35 year old female with breast soreness and discharge. She was found to only have fibroid tissue and nothing metastatic in her breast, but due to family history she elected to have bilateral mastectomies. She was ordered a PCA pump due to hourly pain calls and when the nurse entered the room she was crying c/o continuous pain. She states â€Å"I can’t take this pain and I hate I did this†. The nurse took time to talk with the patient and informed the physician of her crying and got new orders. During the nurses hourly rounds she found her sitting up on the phone and she explained to the nurse that she feels better and glad that she had the surgery because she did not want to go through what her mother and grandmother went through with breast cancer. Contrary Case Mr. M is a 45 year old that had a motor vehicle accident when he was 20 and is now going from hospital to hospital to try to get IV pain medication. He complains of back pain but x-ray results does not show any back issues but due to out of control behavior he is admitted and given pain medication. He refuses all by mouth pain meds and demands IV meds. He does not show any signs of pain when assessed and all staff believes him to be addicted to pain medication. A psych consult is ordered. This patient is not in true pain but has psychiatric issues. Antecedents and Consequences For this particular concept the antecedents and consequences would be all interrelated due to the fact that in nursing, medicine, and physical therapy the same factors apply for pain. Environmental, personal and cultural values act as antecedents related to the concept of pain. The consequences of pain are related to pain reaction and the individual’s own interpretation of the meaning of pain. Pain reaction has a more physical and biological focus; coping with pain refers to the perception of pain and is psychologically focused (Cheng, Foster ; Huang, 2003). When thinking of environmental, personal, and cultural values you begin to think of things such as the patients comorbidities, what the patient perceives as pain, and in their culture how is pain thought of. In many cultures it may be thought of that you must tolerate pain as long as you can while in other cultures their pain threshold is low so any uncomfortable feeling renders a pain medication. Consequences ultimately come from the patient themselves, what is perceived as pain and their history of pain. For example, a patient that has had a laminectomy may think because the pain was horrific the first time that it will be the same the next time, expecting the same relief factors even if the pain is not the same. Empirical Referents Empirical Referents are stated as what it used to measure the concept. Pain is very subjective and they have yet to invent an objective test that will give you the accuracy of some ones pain. They are measured by a scaling system. Most scales make pain measurable, and can tell providers whether your pain is mild, moderate or severe. They can also set baselines and trends for your pain, making it easier to find appropriate treatments. This includes the Numerical Rating scale asking for a pain rating on a scale of 1-10, the Wong-Baker scale which will include facial expressions to emphasize pain, or the Verbal-rating scale and in this scale the patient must complete a questionnaire to describe their pain in more detail (Jacques, 2010). Implications in Nursing In nursing pain is a major factor in treating the patient as it relates to the overall hospitalization. How are we able to get the blood pressure down if the patient is in constant pain? or how can I discharge a patient when they are in a lot of pain? Implications in nursing goes for all aspects of nursing from skin integrity to normal ADL’s. A patient may not turn as they should because they are in the fetal position due to pain which could cause skin issues or pain will cause them not to take a bath as usual. Pain can even cause depression as it decreases normal functioning. This concept is very important in the nursing field and should be treated and assessed appropriately. Conclusion In conclusion I chose to analyze pain as it relates to nursing, medicine, and physical therapy. It is a major factor in that it is related to all aspects of care that is received by these disciplines. Pain is the main contributing factor that causes someone to seek medical attention. Without pain we could have serious issues being that we would not know when were sick, burned, or injured. Pain is very important in healthcare and applies to nursing, medicine, and physical therapy. References Desai, G. , ; Chaturvedi, S. (2012). Pain with no cause! urses’ perception. Indian Journal of Palliative Care, 18(3), 162. Retrieved from http://www. medknow. com Hsiao, J. L. , Wu, W. C. , Chen , R. F. (2013). Factors of accepting pain management decision support systems by nurse anesthetists. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, 13, 16. Retrieved from http://www. biomedcentral. com/bmcmedinformdecismak/ (n. d. ). Pain. Med Plus Trusted Information for You, Retrieved fr om http://www. nlm. nih. gov/medlineplus/pain. html Walker, L. Avant, K. (2005). Strategies for theory construction in nursing (4th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Wells, N. , Pasero, C. , McCaffery, M. (2008). Improving the quality of care through pain assessment and management. Patient Safety and Quality: An evidence based handbook for nursing, Retrieved from http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/books/NBK2658/ (2007). Guidelines for prescribing controlled substances for pain. Medical Board of California, Retrieved from http://www. mbc. ca. gov/pain_guidelines. html Wood, S. (2010). Post operative pain 1: Understanding the factors affecting patients’ experiences of pain. Retrieved from http://www. nursingtimes. et/nursing-practice/clinical-zones/pain-management/post-operative-pain-1-understanding-the-factors-affecting-patients-experiences-of-pain/5021696. article (1998). Physical therapy for chronic pain. 6(3), Retrieved from www. iasp-pain. org/AM/TemplateRedirect. cfm? template=/CM/†¦ Cheng, S. , Foster, R. , Huang, C. (2003). Concept analysis of pain. Retrieved from www. tzuchi. com. tw/file/DivIntr o/nursing/content/92-3/3. Jacques, E. (2010). Using pain scales to effectively communicate pain intensity. Can you rate your pain? , Retrieved from http://pain. about. com/od/testingdiagnosis/a/pain_scales. htm How to cite Concept Analysis of Pain, Essay examples

Drake Successful Essay free essay sample

The chorus and title of the song was the main part of the reason why I decided to choose this song. For one Drake is one of my all time favorite music artists next to Ill Wayne. He motivates me to be who I am and puts me in a positive attitude with his creative lyrics. I chose this song because It shows how Drake wants to be successful In his life and how he keeps himself going to achieve his dreams.He pushes past the troubles In his life and all the hate everyone throws at him to do what he wants to do, produce music, as he Is on pretty much every hip hop radio station and selling e. One reason I chose this song was because I listen too lot of hip hop music and well pretty much anything, but hip hop Is up on my list. When talking about music that motivates me I would have to pick between Drake and Mine, because they both can put such emotion in a few words to make it a paragraph of meaning. We will write a custom essay sample on Drake Successful Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page What they can do with their music amazes me. I like the way this song flows when hes rapping and how the words go together. The flow and the words he says make sense. Compared to other rappers who dont even make sense when they rap is not like Drake at all. He has a meaning to his music and this song is about him and all of his success in life so far. I chose Successful because its about Drake and what he wants to be, what he wants to do and he achieves what he wants in the end. He wants to rap, make money and live the good life, pretty much like everyones dream to be famous and rich.Starting out saying that he wants it all and the money isnt enough to solve your problems; it can destroy your life and change you is what I pulled from that line. To ignoring the hate and doing what he wants, what he is doing is starting to pay off by getting awards and making money. Signing with other music artists and Young Money Entertainment, Drake is well on his way to where he wants to be as a hip hop artist. The part of the song l want it all, thats why I strive for it, disks me and youll never hear a reply for it. That Just shows no matter what he is going to try for what he wants and nothing will stop him his dream. He ignores the hate that he gets and keeps the troubles of his life in his past to begin as a fresh young rapper. It shows that Drake has a lot of self motivation to keep him going. Which Is what I Like about him, he is independent Just like I am. I do things my way and plan what I want o do by myself, no one tells me how I should live my live, so the way Drake Influences me to be myself is a reason why I look up to him.First hearing this song on the radio I didnt really pay much attention to It. I was lust listening to the beat and not really listening to the meaning of the song, the lyrics. When I first started to understand what Drake Is talking about In this song I listened to It more and more. I can relate to him In some ways too, I want to be successful in my life too, like most people do. I want to do something that will make me different from the crowd, pursue my dreams and do what I want. That is why Drake influences me and that is why I chose the song Successful by Drake. By rumpuses creative lyrics.I chose this song because it shows how Drake wants to be successful in his life and how he keeps himself going to achieve his dreams. He pushes past the troubles in his life and all the hate everyone throws at him to do what he wants to do, produce music, as he is on pretty much every hip hop radio station and selling millions of albums every week, I would have to say he made it to where he wants to be. One reason I chose this song was because I listen to a lot of hip hop music and well pretty much anything, but hip hop is up on my list. When talking about music famous and rich.

Venezuela 19601999 Essay Example For Students

Venezuela 19601999 Essay Since the establishment of a democracy in 1961, Venezuela has dramatically increased its role in the international community over the last four decades and has come forth as a regional leader for the Latin American and the Caribbean regions. Venezuela forms one of the most integral parts of Latin America. While its being a leader of Latin America as a whole cannot be overlooked, its even greater role as part of the Caribbean cannot be ignored. This paper will examine the International and Regional Foreign Policy of Venezuela during the last four decades, in the context of international, regional and domestic events. The final analysis will examine the circumstances leading up to and the election of President Hugo Chavez as well as the present direction of Venezuela in the international and regional context. I.Venezuela: A Panorama of the 60s through the 80sA. International Political System of the 1960-1980The Soviet Union (SU) and the United States (US) emerged from World War II as t he two world powers. The US promoted democracy and capitalism while the Soviet Union promoted Communism and Marxism. These two powers at extreme opposite ends of the political ideological spectrum, formed as the leaders of the Cold War. This was a war of dualism by way of forming alliances and spreading their ideology with ends to destroy the existence of the other. We will write a custom essay on Venezuela 19601999 specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The fifties set the stage for what would be an even more turbulent decade; the sixties. The fall of China to communism was a giant blow to the US and its democratic ideals. The US formed a policy according to the Domino Theory of the spread of communism that would be implemented throughout the Cold War. The Domino Theory stated that communism would be spread from one state to neighbor states, infecting regions throughout the world. To counter and stop the spread of communism the US adopted the policy of: 1) supporting existing weak democracies or democracies threatened by communist regimes 2) supporting existing anti-Communist dictators or military regimes 3) directly implementing or indirectly fostering democratic regimes and anti-Communist movements in communist or procommunist countries. The fist stark example of this policy was implemented during the Korean War. The US sent troops to help South Korea in their civil war against the Communist North Korea. Later, under the same ausp ices, the US intervened in many other countries, notably Vietnam, Guatemala, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Panama and Kuwait. The Soviet policy was aimed at the spread and union of the Communist/Socialist movements throughout the world. The SU aided these movements visvis money arms and in some cases invasion (Czechoslovakia 1968) to support Communist/Socialist movements and governments in all parts of the world from greater extents in North Korea and Vietnam to small Communist/Socialist movements in the US and other democratic nations. After WWII Soviet military forces never retreated from, what would later be termed, the Iron Curtain countries. The SU installed the Iron Curtain over countries such as East Germany, Poland, Austria and Hungry, to name a few. Free European nations and the US formed and signed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. This pack would be vital throughout the Cold War and would provide strength and reassurance to European nations against the threat of Soviet expansionism. The fifties also began an intensified race to become more technologically advanced. The SU successfully launched the first satellite and man into space. These Soviet accomplishments sent fear into the US citizens. Supremacy of one state over the another in any one area, such as the space program, was considered a sign of inferiority. The US launched a profound campaign to catch up to the Soviet technology. The US invested millions of dollars in science education for schools and poured money into the NASA program. This was an extreme increase to the already rapid Arms Race that played a large role throughout the Cold War. During the 80s the SALT II and I was signed by the US and the SU to slow the Arms Race. Even so, technology would play en even bigger part of the well being of economies in the decades to come. The pinnacle of the Cold War erupted in the 1962 Cuban Missile Crises. In 1961 Castro officially announced that his regime was Marxist/Leninist and began to align Cuba with it s ideological partner, the SU. One year later, the US blocked Soviet ships armed with nuclear missiles destined for Cuba. The Cuban Missile Crisis is considered the closest to war reached by the two nations. The SU yielded to the US demands and sent their ships with nuclear missiles back to the SU. Although the situation was diffused for the moment, Castro would continue to antagonize the US throughout the following decades. During the sixties and seventies, following the Domino Theory, the US entered the Vietnam War. The US began sending military advisors to help the South Vietnamese against the Northern Communist Vietcong. The implementation of military advisors quickly turned into thousands of troops. The US eventually withdrew all US forces from Vietnam and the Vietcong won the region. The seventies saw the end to the Vietnam War as well as a calming in the tensions between the US and SU. The US President Carter and his administration brought forth to the forefront of US foreign policy issues such as Human Rights and the Environment. These issues hadnt previously been perceived as important, but would play an even greater in politics in the years to follow. The eighties had their own conflicts. The US President Reagan put the Carter issues on the back burner with invasions in Grenada and intervention in Nicaragua. Reagan was more focused on dealing with the SU and an end to the Arms Race. The SU and US signed SALT I and II as well as the Non-Proliferation Treaty (CTBT).These treaties were a bit offset by the STAR WARS program set forth by the Reagan administration. In 1989, the Berlin Wall fell and in the first half of the nineties the SU and Communism fell with it. Its fall brought forth the American model of Democracy and Capitalism as well as American neo-liberalism. The nineties will be seen as the decade of neo-liberalism.B. The Regional Politics: Latin America and the Caribbean of the 1960-1980The regional politics will be understood best by recognizing the countries that defined the atmosphere and relations of the two regions through the context of the Cold War. The US, Mexico, Argentina, Cuba, Brazil and Venezuela are the countr ies that will be considered the countries that autonomously lead and affected the regions. All other countries will be considered countries that had a lesser affect to the region but will be noted in as much as they played a significant role to historic events in the region.Latin America and the Caribbean are two of the regions that were most affected by the Cold War. Both of the regions have a close proximity to the dominating hegemony of the region, the US, and thus played an important strategic role for the US and the competing SU. It is strategically important in four ways: 1) As a potential base from which a hostile power might launch military operations against the US2) As a source of strategic raw materials. Virtually all bauxite, vital to airplane manufacture, comes from the Caribbeanand a quarter of US oil imports and one fifth of iron oregraphite, sulfur, barium, fluorspar and zinc 3) As the location of American territories and military installations. 4) As a major seaborn e logistic route, that includes the vital control of the Panama Canal. For these reasons the US has played a giant role in the internal politics of Latin America and the Caribbean. Moreover, the US increased its role in the Latin American and Caribbean region during the Cold War. The US has longed viewed the regions as dominated by unstable political systems that could be easily influenced and taken over by Communism which could quickly spread throughout the region. Unstable governments that could become Communist and house Soviet nuclear weapons in the American hemisphere prompted the US to tighten its gripe on the regions combating Socialist/Communist movements. The Cuban Case best exemplifies US fears of what could happen in Latin America and the Caribbean without careful control. In 1958, the US made it clear that it would no longer support the Batista totalitarian regime during the Cuban Revolution by putting a trade embargo on arms exports to Cuba . In January 1, 1959 Batista fled the country and Castro moved into Havana. In 1961 the relationship with Cuba and Castro changed forever when he announced he was Marxist/Leninist. The US cut off all formal relations with Cuba and supported the infamous Bay of Pigs invasion by Cuban refugees that failed miserably. In 1962, the US began initiatives to block Cuban relations with other American during the 8th OAS conference in Uruguay . In the ensuing years, many American states would take the lead of the US and break relations with Cuba. After the loss of Cuba, the US was less tolerant of revolutions and liberal minded political regimes in the region. In 1965, military officers of the Dominican R epublic overthrew the government. In April 1965 the US sent thousands of troops in to put down the leftovers of the communist and castroite Trujillo military regime. The beginning of the sixties also marked a change in US policy towards the two regions. In 1961, the Kennedy administration announced the Alliance for Progress to support and strengthen capitalist ventures and development in the regions. The Alliance for Progress passed the US congress and was granted $500 million . The majority of the $500 million was appropriated to the Social Progress Trust Fund of the Inter-American Development Bank, specifically set aside for soft-loan projects that would not normally get funded by that bank or the World Bank . Such projects included; agrarian reform, fair wage and welfare benefits for urban labor, provisions of housing and health and sanitation measures, reduction in literacy, tax reform and price stabilization. This was to provide a way out for many of the poorest of the Latin Am erican and Caribbean countries. The basic goal of the Alliance for Progress was an annual increase of 2.5% of the combined gross national product of the participating Latin American nations, a goal hard to achieve because of the high population growth rate of several countries.Regardless, the capital from the Alliance for Progress was used for development, and enterprise that wouldnt have otherwise existed due to Latin American inflation and financial instability. While the Alliance for Progress tried to replace the American image after the Bay of Pigs, the loans were not as effective as predicted. .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f , .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f .postImageUrl , .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f , .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f:hover , .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f:visited , .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f:active { border:0!important; } .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f:active , .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u80128424b8b640496785252edcf54e4f:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Minimal Art EssayAfter the Bay of Pigs and the Cuba Missile Crisis, Cuba took its own route supporting its Marxist Revolutions throughout the region and in Africa. The Cubans attempted to help Marxist movements in Venezuela and Bolivia. Guevara and the Marxist Cuban Revolution stopped in Bolivia where Guevara was assassinated in 1967. Every decade after the 60s, Cuba has played less and less of a role in international and regional politics albeit from some minor skirmishes instigated by Castro. Cuba and Castro have been increasingly attacked for Human Rights violations. During the 50s, Argentina under General Peron had taken the Third Position, that being an intermediary position between the US and the SU. Peron renewed relations with the SU after decades of silence. However, as a way of securing a supply of arms from the US, Peron indicated in August, 1946, that in the event of actual war between the US and the SU, Argentina would be on the side of the US.Then under President Frondizi, Argentina made a move to align itself with Brazil and other South American nations in a pact that would make South America a strategic alliance apart from the Cold War nations. This move would go no further though because Frondizi would be overthrown by a military coup and Brazilian President Quadros resigned from office in 1961. Frondizi also made an attempt to become a mediator between relations with Cuba and the US. He met secretly with Che Guevara and US diplomat Richard Goodwin in 1961 . But the talks went no further as the positions of either country were nonne gotiable. When the military overthrew the government in 1966, it took an extremely anticommunist stance that would favor the US. Brazilian relations changed after the 1960 election of President Quadros. He made trips to Cuba, Yugoslavia and sent his vice-president to the SU and China demonstrating that close ties to the US would be reevaluated. He began closer relations with Asia, Africa and the SU. Beyond that, he stopped the Brazilian military training in the US. This was an extreme shift from the close relations that the US had enjoyed previously. Quadros resigned in 1961 and was replaced by President Joao Goulart. Goulart furthered relations when in 1963 Brazil entered into a five-year trade agreement with the SU. After the Cuba Missile Crisis, the Goulart administration voted against the OAS blockade of Cuba . Like Frondizi in Argentina, Goulart was taken out of office by a military coup in 1964. The Brazilian Military Coup returned toward a closer relationship with the US than with the SU. This military coup kept fairly close relations with the US until its fall in 1985. Since the 1800s, Mexico has taken a strict noninterventionist stance to foreign relations because of the US military interventions in Mexico. Although this stance has never been compromised in Mexican foreign policy, it has lead to some ambiguities. For example in 1962, Mexico chastised Castro for being Marxist/Leninist and held to her own law of private property. While at the same time signing an OAS resolution declaring Marxism as being incompatible with OAS ideals, she abstained on the vote to exclude Cuba from the OAS. Mexico was one of the only American states to maintain good relations with Cuba throughout the Cold War. Although Mexico never supported the US directly because of the many interventions in the region, Mexico never strayed very far from the US ideologically. It has always remained a democracy with capitalist markets. In the seventies and eighties, Mexico began a furiou s race to catch up the industrialized world. The Mexican government borrowed millions of dollars to create oil and mining industries. During the eighties Mexico went a long way in industrialization. Many scholars and economists were calling it the Mexican Miracle. The Miracle would be stopped short with the Pesos fall in value that forced many industries and the government to refinance the debt and halt the once fast pace of industrialization.C. Venezuela 1960-1980: The Coming of a Regional Power Since the birth of its constitution and democracy in 1961, Venezuela quickly rose to be one of the most influential of all the Latin American and Caribbean countries in regional and international politics. Due to large oil reserves, the Venezuelan economy flourished and brought Venezuela forth as the rich democratic leader of the third world. Venezuela also achieved an established democracy that lasted for more than thirty years. None of the political scientists of the era predicted that Ve nezuela would be one of the first Latin American countries to become democratic because of its long history of military dictators. This all changed December 15, 1957 after the false elections of the military dictator Marcos Perez Jimenez which stated that he won by an incredible 85% . In January 1, 1958, there was a military insurrection led by the junior military officers of the airforce as well as a civilian revolt named the Patriotic Junta. The airforce dropped bombs on the capital. The insurrection was not very well planned or coordinated, but the bombs were enough to scare Perez and his cronies to flee the country with about $250 million of the Venezuelan treasury. All the political parties of the Patriotic Junta could not agree on a political candidate for the upcoming new elections in December of the same year. So in October 31, 1958 the leaders of Accion Democatica, Romulo Betancourt; Copei, Rafael Caldera, and Union Republicana Democratica, Jovito Villalba came together to draw up the Pact of Punto Fijo. Also underwritten were the Fedecamaras, Confederacion de Trabajadores de Venezuela, the Catholic Church and the Fuerzas Armadas. Punto Fijo guaranteed the political stability of the government by compromising between all the countries major powers. The biggest points of the pact are 1) Defensa de la constitucionalidad y derecho a gobernar conforme al resultado electoral. 2) Gobierno de Unidad Nacional, dando participacion en el poder a la oposicion. 3) Programa minimo comun, lo que permitiria garantizar la cooperacion partidista durante el proceso electoral.This pact allowed for fair elections among all the parties. In December 1958, Romulo Betancourt won the presidential elections with 49% of the vote and also won the majority of seats in both congressional houses . Betancourt realized that he would have to consolidate power and form a coalition of the nations most powerful entities to form and establish a sturdy democracy that would last. Most impor tantly, Betancourt announced that there would be no prosecution of crimes during the dictatorship as well as increased military salaries and housing along with weekly trips he made to visit the military barracks . This formed a coalition with the military forces that had always played a large role in the destruction of ruling governments. Although Betancourt made many other alliances he refused to include the extreme left. This was of growing concern as Cuba had just won its revolution against Batista in 1959. Many Communist student movements formed with the Venezuelan Communist Party (PCV) which later merged with the Fuerzas Armadas de Liberacion Nacional (FALN), both of which were outlawed, that participated in guerrilla warfare in the jungles of Venezuela as well as bombing oil lines and the US embassy . The FALN was supported not only morally by Castro, but also with arms. Three tons of arms were found abandoned on a Venezuelan beach with clear ties to Cuba in 1963.Castro was no t the only one that wanted Betancourt out of office and the Communists in. Rafeal Leonidas Trujillo Molina, the dictator of the Dominican Republic was responsible for the June 1960 car bombing that killed a military aid and severely burned Betancourt . These events influenced the Betancourt Doctrine, which stated that Venezuela would not recognize any regime that came to power by way of military intervention . Then Venezuela voted to expel Cuba from OAS membership and later broke diplomatic relations with Cuba in 1961 . In 1961 after encountering an empty treasury, Betancourt called out to the US for a $300 million dollar loan to combat Castro and the Communist insurgency groups. The US sent $450.6 million dollars between 1962 and 1965 . The US could not afford to let go of a country that supplied so much oil by way of US companies, not to mention that it has been considered the keystone country to the Caribbean region. The US had many fears because Cuba had easy access to Venezuela s neighbor, Guyana, which was already the second most communist country behind Cuba. Guyana sent more students to study in the SU only behind Cuba and in later years Castro would send troops to Angola via Guyana . Two of the most important actions that highlighted the Betacourt administration are 1) the elections of 1963 that secured a real functioning democracy 2) the creation of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) by his minister of energy, Juan Pablo Perez Alonzo in 1960 . Although it did not have much power during its beginning years, it would be seen as a powerful organization in the years to follow. .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c , .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c .postImageUrl , .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c , .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c:hover , .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c:visited , .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c:active { border:0!important; } .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c:active , .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ueb77ab31d1fd2d3896c5faae5b66438c:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Chicano Nationalism EssayAD candidate Raul Leoni was elected in 1963 and took office in 1964. Leoni didnt make any radical changes and followed suit with Betacourts reforms. He did still have to face the influence of Castro. The PCV became so out of control that Leoni was forced to search the Universities of Caracas for members that had broken the law. Things came to a head when the military encountered a small landing party headed by a Cuban army officer Machurucuto in the state of Miranda.The situation calmed down and Leoni passed some good agrarian reform laws. The economy under Leoni also proved to be one of the more healthy ones averaging a healthy 5.5% annually . Lar gely, the Leoni administration was a carry over from the Betacourt reforms. Venezuela demonstrated yet again that it was devoted to democracy in the 1968 elections. The AD was split over candidates, which led to the election of COPEI candidate Rafael Caldera . Venezuela passed the test forming an even stronger democracy when the AD passed over the presidential sash to the opposing party, the COPEI. Caldera filled the government with strictly COPEI members and did not make any effort at coalitions. Caldera began by reversing many of the reforms already put forth in the previous AD administrations. Caldera reinstated the PCV as a legal political party and then claimed that it lowered the guerrilla violence. Yet the opposition maintained that it was due to the reevaluation of diplomacy by Cuba and the SU as a result of the death of Che Guevara in 1967 and the Soviet invasion of Czechoslavakia in 1968. Moreover, Caldera rejected the Betacourt Doctrine as too restrictive for Venezuelan interests. Caldera also maintained that the Doctrine was just foreign policy t hat promoted US wellbeing. In effect, Caldera stated that Venezuela would no longer be limited by such doctrines and that it would seek ideological pluralism . Caldera then opened relations with the SU, Eastern Europe and many South American nations that had fallen under military regimes. In 1973, Caldera signed the Lima Consensus that entered Venezuela into the Andean Treaty (Ancom) . The entrance was a positive one because Venezuela was allowed to make many adjustments to the agreement so it would not hurt local businessmen forced to compete with cheap Andean goods. Venezuela also joined for fear of the Brazilian expansion in the region, which was under a military dictatorship . In as much as Caldera strengthened Venezuelas Andean identity, it put forth as much, if not more, effort in furthering its Caribbean identity. Caldera began to put extra capitol from petroleum into the Caribbean Development Bank. These funds derived from petroleum were used to finance loans for Central Ame rican and Caribbean countries to buy oil at cheaper prices. This practice would be expanded in later years. While the Caldera administration strayed away from and even undid, many of the two previous AD administration policies, Caldera produced a healthy economy and expanded its relations and identity throughout the region and indeed the world. The elections of 1973 again gave the power back to Carlos Andres Perez and the AD. Perez and the AD captured 48% of the vote as well as the majority in both houses in congress and the majority of the provinces. In October 1973, the Arab-Israeli War began and quadrupled oil prices. The Venezuelan treasury was suddenly flooded with capitol and inflation began to rise raidly. Perez quickly decided to invest $6 billion of extra annual revenue outside the country in foreign investments by setting up the Venezuelan Investment Fund (FIV) . Some $25 million was also sent to the Caribbean Investment Bank to expand Caribbean development and other loans were made to Central American petroleum importing countries so they could buy oil during the price hike. The Perez administration began expansion on all levels in all areas. The Perez administration visited Spain, France, Great Britain, Italy, the SU, Asia, Africa, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon and Japan. They also received di plomats from all over the world. Venezuela under the Perez administration converted to a rich third world country overnight. Perez took this opportunity to expand or reach to other third world nations of the world, depending on how one looks as it. Perez began speaking more and more about third worldism and ventures to unite them together to combat the first world hegemony. Many countries in the Caribbean and Central America began following the initiative by taking loans from Venezuela as a third world leader instead of the US. To such an extent that it was weakening the functionality CARICOM. Beyond finances, Perez moved into a more diplomatic role with Panama in trying to mediate a negotiation between the Panama and the US for the Canal. Perez also reached out to reunite Cuba with the rest of the OAS, although the attempt failed, Cuba would be incorporated by closer diplomatic relations with Mexico and Venezuela. Mexican President Luis Echeverria Alvarez (1970-76) and Perez joined forces as the two spokesmen for the union of Latin America against the US. Together they formed the Latin American Economic System (SELA) with headquarters in Caracas. This was an organization that was formed to share technologies between the Latin American nations as well as develop and protect the economies of the region (23 Latin American countries promptly joined and the US was excluded) . He supported the Sandinistas in Nicaragua against the Samoza Family. Perez even went so far as to send arms to the Sandanistas during the revolution.Although Perez exuded third world politics and third world organizations such as OPEC, it did not participate in the 1973 Oil Embargo, which weakened the strength of the organization. However, Venezuela did fall in line with the price rise before and during the Embargo, which greatly benefited Venezuela. During the Embargo, Perez increased oil shipment to the US to cover the loss of oil from the Arab nations. However, this favor was not returned when the US excluded all the members of OPEC from the 1974 Trade Act, which created the Generalized System of Trade Preferences to lower tariffs on designated imports from developing nations . This along with the US intervention in the military coup in Chile really miffed Venezuelans. Domestically, Perez began spending millions of dollars on state run industries and increased government spending by 200% . Venezuela took over the iron and oil companies that were largely owned by the US. The influx of money into the domestic market due to the excess of petro-dollars led to conspicuous consumption by Venezuelans. This was largely due to Perezs idea of spreading the wealth of the oil revenues with the public by imposing price controls on commodities and other basic staples. Imported cars and processed foods from the US rose to all time high levels as well as the highest level of importation of Scotch in the world . Perezs plan of industrialization in ten years funded by the oil capitol had loopholes. For instance Venezuela while it invested millions in industries, they had no way of transporting the goods without heavy industry trucks to carry the product as well as roads to support the heavy trucks. The lack of infrastructure to support the heavy industries was evident. Thousands of workers were sent abroad to learn new industry technology, but when they returned the industries never quite processed like their competitors abroad. The spending spree of the Perez government became so bad that they had to impose extremely high tariffs on imported goods. In 1971 Perez coordinated a conference to discuss the up coming conference of the Law of the Sea. Now that Venezuela had become rich over night because of its oil wealth, all the Caribbean and Latin American nations became interested in oil developments off the coasts of their countries. Yet it was still unclear exactly where one draws the line of international waters and a countries private waters. Along this same l ine, many Caribbean and Latin American nations were competing fiercely with industrialized nations for rich fishing industry off their coasts. This was also a concern for Trinidad/Tobago with the coastline that they share with Venezuela. The conference concluded that the Caribbean Position was composed to be a sovereign territorial limit of twelve miles but patrimonial waters of up to 200 miles. In the patrimonial waters, coastal states would have full sovereignty over natural resources in the sea and seabed, but they would have no jurisdiction over navigational rights beyond the twelve mile limit.It was of utmost importance to the developing third world Caribbean and Latin American countries because of an estimated 1,500 billion barrels of oil under the sea floor and endangered fish stock that yields about $18 billion worth of high-protein food annually, an estimated $3 trillion worth of manganese and other minerals . The third UN Conference convened in Caracas in 1974 with some 5 000 delegates. The Conference turned out to be unmanageable and an agreement was not reached. The US was against the 200 mile limit of mineral rights and was up against hard opposition because of the Oil Embargo in the previous year that sent oil prices through the roof and sent oil companies looking throughout the ocean for oil reserves. The Secretary of State Kissinger stated that the US could no longer afford to wait for an international settlement althoughBibliography:

Anasazi essays

Anasazi essays What really happened to the Anasazi; The Crisis of the Thirteenth Century The Anasazi are ancestors of the present- day Pueblo, Zuni, and Hopi tribes of New Mexico and Arizona. The Anasazi fished, hunted small game, and gathered wild foods. They eventually started to build elaborate structures called cliff dwellings, moving away from the subterranean pit houses. They used a sophisticated irrigation system to support their civilization. Using dams and dikes, contoured terraces, and reservoirs, the Anasazi made the most of the sandy soil and limited rainfall in their desert climate. Some archaeologists and historians believed that a lack of rainfall led to the demise of the Anasazi. Other scientists believe that cannibalism caused the downfall of the Anasazi. Along with attacks from the neighboring tribe, the Navajo, the Cannibalism theory provides a more practical explanation for the disappearance of the Anasazi. What caused the Anasazi people, who had one of the most sophisticated civilizations in North America, to abandon their beautiful stone dwellings in the mid- 12th century? One of the earliest theories was the Great Drought theory, presented by A.E Douglass, an historian and archaeologist. He discovered new techniques for tree ring dating, called dendrochronology, he then charted the tree rings in living trees and overlapped and matched them with those found in wooden beams from increasingly older archaeological sites. Douglass discovered that there was a great drought in the American West between 1276 and 1299, about the time when Anasazi cities had been Although the Great Drought theory has been used to explain the disappearance of the Anasazi for many years, scientist and archaeologists are uncovering new evidence that could improve the understanding of why the Anasazi left their homes in the Midwest. Christy Turner, a professor of physical anthropology at Arizona State University, authored a book called...

Gilligans Ethics of Care

Gilligan's Ethics of Care Psychologist Carol Gilligan is best known for her innovative but controversial ideas on the moral development of women. Gilligan emphasized what she called an â€Å"ethics of care† in womens moral reasoning. She placed her approach in direct opposition to Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, which she claimed was biased against females and emphasized an â€Å"ethics of justice.† Key Takeaways: Gilligan's Ethics of Care Carol Gilligan believed women’s morality arose from real-life dilemmas, not hypothetical ones. She came up with three stages of moral development that emphasize an ethics of care.Pre-conventional stage: women are focused on the self.Conventional stage: women have come to focus on their responsibilities towards others. Post-conventional stage: a woman has learned to see herself and others as interdependent. Gilligan developed her thinking in response to the stages of moral development outlined by Lawrence Kohlberg, which Gilligan claimed were gender-biased and emphasized an ethics of justice. However, research by other scholars has shown that two moral orientations exist- one towards care and one towards justice. Origin of Gilligan’s Ethics of Care In 1967, a few years after receiving her Ph.D. from Harvard, Gilligan started a teaching position there. She also became a research assistant for Lawrence Kohlberg, who developed a popular theory of moral development. Gilligan’s work was a response to the gender bias she saw in Kohlberg’s approach.   Kohlberg’s theory of moral development included six stages. At its highest stage, an individual develops a deeply held, self-defined set of moral principles that one wishes to apply equally to all people. Kohlberg cautioned that not everyone would reach this sixth stage of moral development. In subsequent studies, he found that women tended to score at lower stages of moral development than men. However, Gilligan pointed out that the research Kohlberg did to develop his stage theory only included young white male participants. As a result, Gilligan argued that men werent morally superior to women. Instead, the reason women scored lower in Kohlberg’s stages than men was that Kohlberg’s work discounted the voices of women and girls. She outlined this position in detail in her seminal book In a Different Voice, which she published in 1982. Gilligan decided to study the development of moral reasoning in women herself and found that women thought about morality differently than men. Men, as exemplified by Kohlberg’s theory, tend to look at morality through a lens of rights, laws, and universally applied principles. This â€Å"ethics of justice† has traditionally been viewed as an ideal in patriarchal Western cultures because it is championed by men. However, women tend to look at morality through a lens of relationships, compassion, and responsibility to others. This â€Å"ethics of care† has often been overlooked because of the limited power women have typically held in Western societies. Gilligan illustrated this difference in the moral reasoning of males and females by articulating the thinking of a boy and a girl participants responses to the â€Å"Heinz dilemma† from Kohlberg’s studies. In this dilemma, a man named Heinz must choose whether or not to steal medicine he can’t afford to save the life of his dying wife. The boy participant believes Heinz should take the medicine because the right to life is more important than the right to property. On the other hand, the girl participant doesn’t believe Heinz should take the medicine because it could land him in jail for stealing, leaving his wife alone when she needs him. As this example demonstrates, the ethics of justice is impartial. Principles must always be applied in the same way, even if that means it negatively impacts the individual or someone they’re close to. On the other hand, the ethics of care is contextual. Morality isn’t based on abstract principles but on real relationships. Given these gender differences, Gilligan proposed that women don’t stop developing morally at lower levels than men, but that women’s moral development simply continues along a different trajectory than the ethics of justice measured by Kohlberg’s scale. Gilligan’s Stages of Moral Development Gilligan outlined her own stages of moral development based on an ethics of care. She used the same levels Kohlberg did but based her stages on interviews with women. Specifically, because Gilligan believed women’s morality arose from real-life dilemmas, not hypothetical ones, she interviewed women trying to decide whether or not to terminate a pregnancy. Her work yielded the following stages:   Stage 1: Pre-Conventional At the pre-conventional stage, women are focused on the self and emphasize their own self-interests over other considerations. Stage 2: Conventional At the conventional stage, women have come to focus on their responsibilities towards others. They are concerned with care for others and being selfless, but this position is defined by society or other people in the woman’s orbit. Stage 3: Post-Conventional At the highest stage of moral development, the post-conventional stage, a woman has learned to see herself and others as interdependent. These women have control of their lives and take responsibility for their decisions, a big part of which is the choice to care for others. Gilligan said that some women may not reach the highest stage of moral development. In addition, she didnt attach specific ages to her stages. However, she did claim that it wasnt experience that drove a woman through the stages, but cognitive ability and the woman’s evolving sense of self. Can the Ethics of Care Extend to Men? While the ethics of care was developed based on research with women, Gilligan has insisted that the ethics of care and the ethics of justice aren’t mutually exclusive. Instead of focusing on gender, Gilligan preferred to focus on the different themes brought up by these two perspectives on morality. Although this meant that men could develop an ethics of care, Gilligan indicated it was likely more common in women. Research by other scholars has backed up some of Gilligan’s assertions. On the one hand, studies have indicated that the gender differences on Kohlberg’s stages aren’t especially pronounced, suggesting that there may not be a strong gender-bias in Kohlberg’s work. On the other, studies have shown that people have two moral orientations that line up with Gilligan’s ethics of justice and ethics of care. And studies have found that the moral orientation towards care is stronger in females. Thus, while both men and women can and will develop both orientations, one may be more influential in men than in women and vice versa. Furthermore, research suggests that as people age and reach the highest stages of moral development, the two orientations may be more equally represented in the individual, regardless of gender. Critiques Despite the evidence for some of Gilligan’s ideas, they have also been criticized for a number of reasons. One critique states that Gilligan’s observations are the result of societal expectations of gender rather than differences that naturally arise from gender. Thus, if societal expectations were different, the moral orientations of males and females would also be different. In addition, feminist psychologists are divided over Gilligan’s work. While some have praised it, some have criticized it for reinforcing traditional notions of femininity that could continue to lock women into care-giver roles. Feminists have also pointed out that women are not a monolith. They argue that Gilligan’s work makes women’s voices seem homogenous, while denying their nuance and diversity. Sources Bell, Laura. Profile of Carol Gilligan. Psychologys Feminist Voices Multimedia Internet Archive. feministvoices.com/carol-gilligan/â€Å"Carol Gilligan Moral Development Theory Explained.† Health Research Funding. https://healthresearchfunding.org/carol-gilligan-moral-development-theory-explained/Crain, William. Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. 5th ed., Pearson Prentice Hall. 2005.â€Å"Ethics of Care.† New World Encyclopedia. 15 August 2017. https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Ethics_of_careGoodTherapy. â€Å"Carol Gilligan.† 8 July 2015. https://www.goodtherapy.org/famous-psychologists/carol-gilligan.htmlSander-Staudt, Maureen. â€Å"Care Ethics.† Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://www.iep.utm.edu/care-eth/#SH1aWilkinson, Sue. â€Å"Feminist Psychology.† Critical Personality: An Introduction, edited by Dennis Fox and Isaac Prilleltensky, SAGE, 1997, pp. 247-264.

Policing and HRA 1998 (UK Law) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Policing and HRA 1998 (UK Law) - Essay Example There are sixteen basic rights in the human rights act, all taken from the European convention of human rights. The main effects of the Human Rights Act, 1998 are thresholds.2 First, when deciding cases before them, all courts and tribunals are required to take into account the conventions, as well as the decisions made by the institutions.3 Secondly, the national courts should read, if possible, the primary and secondary legislation in a manner, which is compatible with the conventions. Thirdly, public authorities are under a duty to act in accordance with convention failure, which results into civil action being taken against them. Generally, the main purpose of this convention was to proclaim a series of universal human rights which militate against the repetition of those events which had caused such immeasurable suffering. All public officials, including the police, have an obligation to respect and act according to the convention rights.4 Acting in such a way to contravene or go against these laws is unlawful and the citizens can raise any inappropriate act before the UK court or tribunal.5 The statements in this convention have to be contained within its articles which are augmented in its protocols which have been added since its formulation. In this paper, we shall look at how the various articles in the human right act have affected the police practice in crime investigation. A person has a right to have their life protected by the law.6 No one shall be deprived of his life. The act outlaws the death sentence in the United Kingdom. There are only limited circumstances where one can take away another’s life, like for self-defense. The police are therefore, expected to be very careful when carrying out an investigation because any act that may result to the death of the criminal is not justifiable under the law. A police is not supposed to end a person’s life by use of excess force even if he is defending the person from unlawful act,

Public Relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Public Relations - Essay Example Corporate social responsibility will always be given the emphasis that it richly deserves because it makes or breaks an organization in the sheer sense of the word1. To start with, public relations aim to focus on the aspect of building credibility for the sake of the organization in the eyes of the publics so that they can think, act and feel positive about the organization, the individual or an entity for that matter. The public relations are usually given importance because the organizations know that they will be able to derive a great amount of mileage from the intended publics as they aim to touch upon new avenues and explore the novel pathways upon which these publics can be reached in essence. What is most important is the fact that ethical manifestations start making the rounds of the discussions which center on the premise of public relations and the related corporate social responsibility2. ... Since public relations are all about understanding how the organization should be viewed by the public in terms of its important dealings, it will never afford to have a negative word about its own self. The role of public relations within the corporate social responsibility ranks is all the more necessary to gain an insight from. This is because public relations have always been forthright about the organization’s corrective stance no matter how difficult it is to reveal to the varied publics. This gains importance with the changing times since people are now properly realizing how they must be treated at the hands of these organizations and what kind of attitudes rule the roost at the end of the day. Public relations will always assist in building up a corporate social responsibility understanding as it takes care of the problems which arise every now and then, and assures one of complete responsibility and commitment to an organizational cause. The role of the public relati ons at improving and enhancing the levels of corporate social responsibility should be such that there is empathy within the related ranks, and this shall mean success for the organizations in the long run. If corporate social responsibility understandings are properly managed, then this would immense success for the organization because these are run parallel with the public relations domains4. The management regimes of the organizations always look at addressing the grey areas so that these weaknesses could be plugged and turned into strengths in a very free flowing manner5. Since the corporate social responsibility measures take care of the ethical look of the organization and thus it creates harmony amongst the aegis of the organization, it would always