It320 Chapter 1 Questions

Chapter 1 1. Which of the following statements accurately describe differences between a LAN and a WAN? b. companies can use a Wan to connect remote locations, and a LAN can make a local connection in a building. d. Only WANs require a CSU/DSU to be used on the ends of the cable 2. Network professionals belong to organizations that plan and define standards used in networking. Which of the following are recognized industry organizations? a. IETF c. ISO d. EIA f. ITU 3. Which of the following are true about router? a. outers enable different IP networks or IP subnets to communicate with each other. c. path selection is one of the main functions of a router. e. routers have a central processing unit and memory. 4. Which of the following are main components of a router? a. ROM b. Flash memory e. RAM 5. Which of the following statements describe the function of RAM in a router? c. RAM stores the current configuration information. e. RAM stores routing tables for the router. 6. Which of t he following statements are true about DTE? c.DTE usually resides on the customer's premises. d. DTE is an acronym for data terminal equipment. 7. Which of the following statements are true about DCE? b. DCE provides clocking to the DTE. c. DCE is an acronym for data circuit-terminating equipment. 8. The term WAN refers to which layers of the OSI model? b. Data link d. Physical 9. Which of the following physical ports and/or cables on a router require clocking to be configured in a back-to-back connection? e. Serial port with DCE cable. 10. Which of the following statements are true about interfaces? . Ethernet interfaces usually use RJ-45 connectors. d. Interfaces can accept smart serial connectors. 11. What are possible functions of a console port? b. Accessing the router to change configurations. d. Password recovery 12. In the following figure, which setting is different from the default for connecting to a Cisco router? a. Bits per second. The Cisco default is 9600bps 13. Which of the following are data-link encapsulations for WAN? a. Frame relay c. IETF 14. Which of the following are used in WAN's? b. Router c. Modem 15.Which of the following describe the function of flash memory in a router? a. Holds the Cisco IOS software image c. Keeps its contents when a router is rebooted. d. Can store multiple versions of Cisco IOS software. 16. Which of the following are true about out-of-band router management? a. Can be performed using the console port with a rollover cable. d. Can allow troubleshooting when a link is down. e. Can be performed using a dialup connection. 17. Which of the following are true about the items shown in the following figure? a. Item B contains serial interfaces. . Items C and D can be used for router management. d. Item B can accept either DTE or DCE cables. 18. Which statement is true about a router? b. NVRAM stores the startup configuration file, and RAM stores the running configuration. CHALLENGE Q&A 1. Which type of cable is used i n the connections marked in the following figure? a. PC1 to R1: crossover b. R1 to R2: back-to-back serial connection or DTE/DCE c. R2 to SW2: straight-through cable d. R2 to PC2: console or rollover cable 2. Router R1 has been used in a lab for the last several years.R1 connects to router R2 using a back-to-back serial connection, using its serial interface that does not have a built-in CSU/DSU. R1 also has a single Ethernet interface connected to a single PC without using a hub or switch. To save money, the IT manager has decided to use R1 for a new site being installed into the network, as shown in the bottom half of the following figure. Which of the following answers is true regarding other opportunities to save money with this new installation? a. R1 can use the serial cable that was formerly attached to R2, but not the serial cable that was formerly attached to R1.

Breach Of Contract Essay

Breach of contract simply means non performance without excuse or intrusion with other party’s performance with regards with bargained-for exchange or agreement made by one or more parties concerned. The claimant or the complainant in cases of breach of contract is said to be a plaintiff. It refers to a party seeking for a legal remedy by initiating a charge on the court. He also seeks judgment favorable to him and appropriate from legal basis. Not every single case of breaches of contract will be automatically agreement killers or will end up in incriminate. There is what we call material and immaterial breaches. The lawsuit depends on whether it is material or immaterial and also depends on who the parties are. Immaterial breaches are simple cases which can be ignored. It can be fixed by giving opportunity for the defendant to correct and fix the breach. One case of breach of contract is the 2006 case charge against Howard Stern, American radio personality by CBS radio. The CBA radio takes legal action against their former star due to inappropriate used of radio airtime just to build up his potential employer, the Sirius Satellite Radio. And also he was charged due to gained financial reward thru the help of stock sale of CBS radio(Carter, 2006). With this case, the breach is said to be done because the allegedly defendant is of makings things out of his responsibilities and out of the agreement made. As a defense, he can simply use the issue of personal vendetta. He may say that they only using the charges just to annihilate his image as a radio star. If the breach will end up in victory for the Plaintiff, the CBS, they could attain financial payments for the said breach. Reflection Knowing the ideas on breach of contract is necessary for any business related individual as to know what to do to avoid things concerning breach of contract. Because breach of contract may happen in many ways, it is necessary for me as a business practitioner to be able to know much about this. We should know that breach of contract may happen in following cases, one is when a corporation ordered a product from me as an example and when time of delivery it will not accept it or even accept it but they won’t pay for it, I can charge them breach. Second is when corporation tries to interfere with my business which is also another case. Third is when a one of my former employee opens his own business and when gives criticisms against his my business we can also say that it is a breach. For us as a business entrepreneur, knowing the laws in a business community is an essential part especially if we are only a newcomer to the world of business. Being new does not mean we should always be ignorant of the things we should be most likely aware of. There exist a lot of things that should be known and understood with regards with our business. The topic in breach of contract is one of the noted laws in a business community that seems to have a lot of cases. By giving attention to the topic we could further think of ways how to avoid or if not meant to do so we can find ways to solve it. To be able to attain success, not just know how to make our business work out, we should always consider what the things that should be done and the things not should be done. Preparing for a business seems to be tedious but knowing the game of business can help much in business progress. References: Carter, B. (2006). CBS sues its former star for breaches of contract [Electronic Version]. Retrieved July 13, 2007 from http://www. iht. com/articles/2006/03/01/business/stern. php.

Diversity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Diversity - Essay Example People who are extroverts and like to experiment with different things are fond of diversity. They like to interact with people from different cultures, understand their unique norms and values, and make friends with them. Many even go to the extent of marrying across cultures where they not only have to put up with the diversity of cultures, but also the diversity of races in terms of their mixed race children. However, good-natured as these people are, they know how to draw a balance between the two cultures and make a happy living. On the other hand, there are people who are negatively affected by diversity of race and culture. These people are chauvinists and fanatics by nature. They like to have only people of their own race and culture around them, whether it is their neighborhood or their workplace. They tend to draw a line between themselves and people from other races and cultures, considering themselves superior to others. They do not let others cross that line with them bu t often cross it themselves only to insult others in some way e.g. racism, bullying etcetera. Such opponents of diversity tend to have dysfunctional conflicts with their peers from other races and cultures in the workplace also, thus making it difficult for the immigrants and foreign workers to settle down in their country. Such people also have a tendency of making groups and run campaigns against the foreigners informally on such grounds as culture and religion. The way diversity affects an individual is fundamentally related to the impression of diversity in the eyes of that individual. Diversity affects me in many positive ways. I am a sort of person who is very welcoming toward new ideas, things, and aspects. I feel blessed to have been born in an age when there is so much diversity around me. I like to meet with people from different cultures and races. I am fascinated by the variety of ways in which they interact with one another, their unique cultures, styles of living, cuis ines, norms, values, trends, and traditions. I like to put in this effort to understand them and make myself understood to them so that we form positive impressions of each other. Diversity, to me, is a way of understanding God. I am overwhelmed with joy to think and realize how diverse God has created this world. There are people of different shades of brown and white, and each color is so beautiful and admirable. People can be identified with their origin just from their facial features which is great. Out of my love for diversity, I have started learning Arabic language, though I have to go a long way for that. I am fascinated by Indian weddings in particular. They are so different from our weddings. While our brides dress in white traditionally, Indian brides dress in all sorts of vibrant colors and exotic designs. I like dancing to Bollywood songs with my friends occasionally. I have many friends from different countries. I enjoy interacting with them and like the way they try to speak English in their native accents. It gives me pleasure to help them find the right word to express their emotions and meanings as they speak. I particularly like Chinese cuisine a lot. I ask my Chinese friend for the favor of cooking a Chinese recipe on my birthday and present it to me as a gift. I also cook something from my cuisine and gift

Social Responsibility and Executive Management Coursework

Social Responsibility and Executive Management - Coursework Example Business enterprises regarded human resource (labor) as a commodity to be purchased and sold at will. Business organizations employed child labor and exploited labor through low wages. The working conditions were unsafe and injured employees were terminated without benefits. According to Barry (2000), there were high levels of cultural discrimination and harassment in the workplace. There were no guidelines on advertisement and selling activities. In addition, there were no regulations on the quality of the products sold and people’s lives were in danger. The business enterprises exploited, manipulated and mislead their customers. The managers of the business enterprises were accountable to the owners. The governments were not concerned with the regulation of business enterprises during the first phase of social responsibilities. Consequently, members of the public were exploited. The second phase of social responsibility was the trusteeship management. Profit maximization was not the only driving force of the business enterprises. The human resource at this second phase was recognized as a valuable input to the business organization. Business enterprises acknowledged the rights of the employees, suppliers, customers, creditors, stakeholders and the community in which it operated. The second phase showed governments’ commitment to protecting its citizens for bad business people. Legal frameworks and institutions were established to regulate business enterprises and protect the public from exploitative business organizations. However, business enterprises were faced with increasing expenses. The employees received better pay, business enterprises spend more on a provision of quality products and services. The profits of the business were lower in the short run but improved significantly in the long-term. The third phase of the social responsibility was q uality life management.

Philosophy on Dreaming Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Philosophy on Dreaming - Essay Example The central nervous system, which is active even in sleep, can pay full attention to a dreamer's intrapsychic processes only when it is not distracted by environmental stimuli. If these stimuli exceed a certain intensity, they interrupt dreams, just as acute anxiety associated with fears of a dreamed conflict stops the process of dreaming. Mild, subliminally perceived environmental distractions are usually incorporated into dream events without misrepresentation of the main dream message. Analysts also look for any allusions to the manner in which dreamers guide, control, or curb their overt social behavior. When dreamers' behaviors and personalities change, dreams change also. Personality means the function a character plays, intentionally or unconsciously, in psychosocial relationships; role encompasses the intrapsychic processes and the conscious or unconscious overt behavior of the individual. One's mental states like values, desires, intentions are functions determined by the brain states. Brain states depends upon the state of affairs and events one is through with or going through at the same instant.

Classical and Structural Realism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Classical and Structural Realism - Essay Example This paper aims to discuss and analyze Classical and Structural Realism. It compares and contrasts these two branches of Realism. With the use of relevant examples and appropriate analysis, it is hoped that the differences and similarities between the two can be thoroughly discussed. In this analysis, the US behavior was used as a model due to the fact that it is the world’s lone superpower and is thus the main actor in the play called international relations. Before discussing Classical and Structural Realism, it is appropriate and proper to first define what Realism is. This approach provides a rational and realistic view of how international affairs are acted. It is based on the way things are done and not on the way things should be done. The way it views the world’s international affairs utilizes that of a scientific method – based on facts and not in abstract ideas, based on the analysis of the causes and consequences of the events. It is logical and not im aginary. Machiavelli captured the essence of Realism with the following statement. An example of an international event that is viewed as using the â€Å"imaginary† and â€Å"utopian† approach is that of the Kellogg –Briand Pact which outlawed any more wars. This was a consequence of the bitter experience of World War I. The proponents unrealistically assumed that war would never happen again and that the signatories would comply with what they have agreed upon. An example of a realistic view was provided by Waltz when he viewed the spread of nuclear weapons.

None Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 20

None - Essay Example of the high demand for iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 plus, the Apple Inc chief executive, Time Cook, and the management decided to delay the production of an extra-large iPad. It seems that the leadership did not want to overwork its supplier while they were still trying to meet the demand of their customer on another product. According to the Wall Street Journal unnamed source from one of Apple’s suppliers said that the 5.5- inch iPhone 6 plus output remains unsatisfactory. Splitting resources among the display makers would be challenging in producing a large screen iPad at the moment (Luk and Wakabayashi 1). Therefore, it is a significant understanding by the Apple management for allowing its suppliers to push the production of the large screen iPad. They were well aware of the challenge the company is facing in hiring enough factory employees who will assemble the new iPhone in some of its suppliers’ branches. In an organization, there are different individuals trying to accomplish as a specific goal, but working on different tasks. Therefore, organizational behavior is how these individuals or groups are working together within an organization. The idea is focusing on the best way to manage the workers, organization and processes. It is based on the idea of what are employees’ motivated by and why does it motivate them. Managers and supervisors can accomplish organizational goals by defining goals, motivating staff and monitoring performance (Schmermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn 63). With the information that a manager gathers in the organization, he or she is able to make a decision. Therefore, managerial control of the management over the organization is a very significant part of organizational behavior. It includes the decision process by the management of an organization in choosing a course of action to deal with an issue or opportunity. In this case, Apple Inc. Decided to delay the production of a large-screen iPad and instead produce iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 plus

Short Essay on Ethical Perspectives on Code of Conduct Statement

Short on Ethical Perspectives on Code of Conduct Statement - Essay Example The universitys Code of Ethical Conduct borrow heavily from the state, federal and domestic regulations, the institutions guiding policies and principles, grant and contractual duties and responsibilities and the generally accepted guidelines for ethical behavior (Communications, 2015). The Universitys Code of Ethical Conduct is divided into twelve sections, all equally important. The following is a summary of the New York Universitys Code of Conduct. Every member is expected to adhere to the highest ethical levels at all times. In this regard, every member is needed to understand the guiding laws and principles to avoid contravention of the Code of Conduct. In addition, every member of the University fraternity should comply with all the contractual regulations as well as terms and conditions of the grants. These conditions are stipulated in the contractual agreements set before commencement of any task. All members of the university are needed to offer support to the institutions objectives to avert a case of conflict of interest. This entails executing the required duties and tasks while strictly abiding by the institutions guidelines on reportage. Members of the universitys research and teaching teams are required to obey the rules of integrity and honesty. Every member is expected to respect each other within the school and outside the school boundaries. The individuals involved in the medical field are required to uphold the highest medical standards in giving care to the patients. Records are required to be kept and regularly updated as part of the institutions policy. Every member is also required to conduct the universitys business with utmost respect for each other, with integrity and honesty. In the line of duty, members of the school are supposed to observe the highest safety standards, especially in preserving the environment. The Code of Conduct is enforced by the school, and any violations are investigated and

Equity & Trusts Essay Example for Free

Equity Trusts Essay Answer: Introduction: In order to create a valid trust, it is necessary to have three certainties of trust, formalities, and perfect constitution. A trust will be perfectly constituted where the rights, which are to form the subject matter of the trust, are vested in the intended trustee. In Knight v Knight[1] Lord Langdale, a private express trust cannot be created unless three certainties are present; these are certainty of intention, certainty of subject matter and certainty of beneficiaries. Settlors specify the number of beneficiaries to create fixed trust, for example a trust in favour of ‘my children’.   In Vandervell v IRC[2], Vandervell’s bank held the legal title to shares on a resulting trust for him and, upon his instructions, transferred them to the Royal College of Surgeons (RCS). The IRC argued that (1) Vandervell had made a valid transfer of the stock to the RCS, despite disposing of his equitable interest without writing, and (2) he had a beneficial interest in the option to purchase, which was extremely valuable. Consequently Vandervell had substantially increased his tax liability. As to (1), it was held that an instruction to transfer the legal title out of a trust completely did not amount to a disposition of an equitable interest, so s. 53(1)(c) of the LPA 1925 did not bite. For (2) and this is the really twisted thinking because Vandervell did not intend to make an outright gift of the benfits that would follow from the exercise of the option to purchase the company stock, he must have intended the trust company to apply those benefits for somebody else. Certainty of intention: Intention is important to create a valid trust. Technical words are not required. The question is whether, on the proper construction of the words are used, the settlor or testator has shown an intention to create a trust and conversely, the use of the word trust does not conclusively indicate the existence of a trust. A precatory expression of hope or desire, or suggestion or request, is not sufficient. Certainty of subject matter: Testamentary gifts have failed where they concerned â€Å"the bulk of my estate,† or â€Å"such parts of my estate as she shall not have sold† or â€Å"remaining part of what is left† or all of my other houses†. In Hunter v Moss, the CA held that a declaration of trust of 50 shares from a holding of 950 did not fail for uncertainty of subject matter. Certainty of beneficiaries: A trust may fail for uncertain beneficiaries. Therefore, the trustees need to be able to identify who the beneficiaries should be, certainty of objects. The requirement for the existence of identified beneficiaries is called the ‘beneficiary Principle’. The ‘beneficiary Principle’ states that a valid trust must be for the benefit of ascertainable individuals- the trust must have beneficiaries. In consequence, equity will not countenance a trust to carry out a purpose since the benefits of carrying out a purpose are not owed to any specific individuals. Hence, the principle is also framed as the ‘no purpose trust’ rule. The ‘beneficiary Principle’ states that a valid trust must be for the benefit of ascertainable individuals- the trust must have beneficiaries. The first objection may be seen in a celebrated dictum of Sir William Grant M.R. in Morice v Bishop of Durham[4]. Every trust has an obligation. [Margaret wilkie Rosalind, Equity Trusts, (2004 -2005), Press. pg 19] This rule similar to ‘privity’ rule of contract law; only parties of the contract may enforce it; even though some third party may benefit from the performance of a contract, that factual benefit alone gives him no interest under the contract, and thus no right to enforce it. In Re Astor’s Settlement Trust[5], Lord Astor purported to create a trust for ‘the maintenance of good understanding between nations and preservation of the independence and integrity of newspapers.’[Ramjohn M. Unlocking Trusts, (2005) Pg 228]. The court held that the trust was void for uncertainty on the ground that the means by which the trustees were to attain the stated aims were un specified and the person who was entitled, as of right, to enforce the trust was unnamed. In the other words, a trust creates rights in favour of the beneficiaries and imposes correlative duties on the trustees. If there were no persons with the power to enforce such rights, then equally there can be no duties imposed on trustees. In IRC v Broadway Cottages Trust[6], it was held that for a trust to be valid the trustees must be able to draw up complete list of the beneficiaries. They had to overcome any conceptual or evidential uncertainties that might arise and locate all the beneficiaries, since otherwise the trust fund could not be properly distributed. It has been recognised, however in Re Gulbenkian[7] and McPhail v Doulton[8] that this test is very appropriate for fixed trusts, but creates unfair and unjust results for discretionary trusts. The nature of a discretionary trust is that allows the trustees to make a reasonable choice between the beneficiaries, and the strict application of the test would be defeat the trust and settlers intention where the majority of the beneficiaries were clearly identified and located but some of them were not. Although the trustee would be able to make a reasonable selection, the ‘complete list’ test would invalid the trust. Lord Wilberforce recognised this as unsatisfactory while giving judgment in McPhail v Doulton: When settlors create discretionary trust, the trustees are required to exercise their discretion to select the beneficiaries from among a class of objects and/or determine the quantum of interest that the beneficiaries may enjoy. The modern test for certainty of objects in respect of discretionary trusts is known as the ‘individual ascertain ability’ test, or the ‘is or is not’ test, or the ‘any given postulant’ test. This test was laid down by the House of Lords in McPhail v Doulton (sub nom Re Baden) and Re Gulbenkian[9]. The test is very appropriate for fixed trusts, but creates unfair and unjust results for discretionary trusts. Although the trustee would be able to make a reasonable selection, the ‘complete list’ test would invalid the trust. Lord Wilberforce recognised this as unsatisfactory while giving judgment in McPhail v Doulton (1971):   Ã‚   ‘The basis for the Broadway Cottages principle is stated that to be that a trust cannot be valid unless, if need be, it can be executed by the court and the court can only execute it by ordering an equal distribution in which every beneficiary shares.’ A new test has been adopted for power and discretionary trusts. This test means that ‘the power will be valid if it can be said with certainty whether any given individual is or is not a member of the class and the power does not simply fail because it is impossible to ascertain every member of the class according to in McPhail v Doulton. In case of Re Hay’s Settlement Trusts[10] the trust may be valid although identify of all the objects is not known. In the case of wide-ranging discretionary trust and the trustee has applied his mind to the ‘size of the problem’ should he then consider in individual cases whether, in relation to other possible claimants, a particular grant is appropriate. In Re Barlow’s Will Trusts[11], the testatrix, by her will, directed her executor to sell her collection of valuable paintings subject to the provision that ‘any member of my family and any friends of mine’ be allowed to purchase any of the paintings at a catalogue price complied in 1970. The executors applied to the court to ascertain whether the direction was void for uncertainty and guidance as to the appropriate method for identifying members of the testatrix’s family. [Hanbury Martin, Modern Equity, 17th Edition, (2005),   Pg 95] The Court held that the direction as to ‘friends’ was valid, for the properties were to be distributed in specie and quantum of the gifts did not very with the class. Despite the expression ‘friends’ being conceptually uncertain, the transfer by will amount to a series of individual gifts to persons who satisfied a specific description. The court also gave a guideline on the identification of friend’s family. These are as follows: The relationship with the testatrix was required to be a long standing, The relationship must have been social as opposed to business or professional’, When circumstances permitted, they met frequently. The expression ‘family’ meant a blood relationship with the testatrix. A â€Å"friend† was a person who had a relationship of long standing with the testatrix, which was a social as opposed to a business or professional relationship, and who had met her frequently when circumstance permitted For the benefit of all assiduous lawyers working within the European Union’ are conceptually or sufficiently certain and it is possible to make a complete list of lawyers. However, the list will be too large, so it is possible to fail the trust. The court was prepared to assume that ‘inhabitant’ was sufficiently certain, but held the trust void for administrative unworkability as a class was far too large. In Re Denley’s Settlement Trusts[12], Goff J upheld a trust under which a piece of land was to be used as a recreation ground for the employees of a particular company. Goff J regarded the Subsequent commentary on the case has tended to treat the case as merely one of a particular kind of discretionary trust according to Re Grant’s Will Trusts [13], or as a trust for persons with the purpose being treated merely as a â€Å"superadded† direction or motive for the gift Re Lipinski’s Will Trusts [14]. Thus, the case appears to have been read to deny that it represents a true departure from the beneficiary principle. In Re Lipinski’s will Trusts[15] however; Oliver j followed the principle of Re Denley’s Trust Deed by finding that although a trust for the erection of buildings of the hull Judeans (Maccabi) Association was expressed as a purpose trust. It was in fact for the benefit of ascertainable individuals, namely, the members of the club, and he therefore held the trust to be valid. It was argued that because the testator had made the gift in memory of his late wife, this tented to perpetuity and precluded the association members for the time being from enjoying the gift beneficially. Oliver J rejected this argument. Applying the principle of Re Lipinski’s Will Trusts to this disposition therefore, it might well not fail for certainty of objects. In Re Endacott[16], a testator transferred his residuary estate to the Devon Parish Council ‘for the purposes of providing some useful memorial to myself’. The trust was failed for uncertainty of objects. In Pettingall v pettingall [17], the testator’s executor was given a fund in order to spend â‚ ¤ 50 per annum for the benefit of the testator’s black mare. On her death, any surplus funds were to be taken by the executor. The court held that in the view of the willingness of the executor to carry out the testator’s wishes, a valid trust in favour of the animal was created. The residuary legatees were interested not in the validly of the gift in its failure. In Re Dean[18], the testators directed his trustees to use â‚ ¤ 750 per annum for the maintenance of his horses and hounds should they live so long. It was held that the trust was valid. In Re Kelly[19], the court took the view that lives in being were required to be human lives. In any event, the court is entitled to take judicial notice of the lifetime of animals. In Re Haines, The Times, 7th November 1952, the court took notice that a cat could not live for no longer than 21 years. In Re Thompson[20], the Pettingall principle was unjustifiably extend to uphold a trust form the promotion and furtherance of fox hunting. A trust for the building of a memorial or monument in memory of an individual is not charitable, but may exist as a valid purpose trust if the trustees express a desire to perform the task. In Mussett v Bingle,[21] a testator bequeathed â‚ ¤ 300 to his executors to be used to erect a monument to the testator’s wife’s first husband. The court held that the gift was valid. Similarly, a gift for the maintenance of a specific grave or particular graves may be valid as private purpose trusts but additionally the donor is required to restrict the gift within the perpetuity period, otherwise the gift may be invalidated. In Re Hooper [22], a bequest to trustees on trust to provide ‘so far as they can legally do so’ for the care and upkeep of specified graves in churchyard was upheld as a private trust. The perpetuity period was satisfied by the phase ‘so far as they can legally do so’. Conclusion: Theoretically, according to general rule all four stages required to transfer to be completed before the trust was upheld but practically this principle is relaxed now. To honour the intention of settlor and protect unconscionability, equity use the maxim that equity will perfect an imperfect gift and equity regards, as done that which ought to be done. Bibliography: Hanbury Martin, Modern Equity, 17th Edition, (2005), London: Sweet Maxwell, Pg 95-116 Penner, J. E. The Law of Trusts, 4th Edition, (2004), London: Butterworths, Pg 103- 137 Ramjohn M. Unlocking Trusts, 1st Edition, (2005), Hodder Stoughton, Pg 25-45, 227-236 4)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Margaret wilkie Rosalind, Equity Trusts, (2004 -2005), Oxford University Press. pg 18-36 [1]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1840) All ER, 3 Beav   148, Ramjohn M. Unlocking Trusts, (2005), Pg 25 [2]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   [1967] 2 AC 291, HL [3]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1994) 1 WLR 452, Margaret wilkie Rosalind, Pg 25-45 [4]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1804), 9 Ves 399, ER 656, Ramjohn M. Unlocking Trusts, (2005), Pg 228 [5]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1952) All. ER 1067 Ch 534, Penner, J. E. The Law of Trusts,   (2005), Pg 25-45 [6]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1955) HL, Ch 20 Ramjohn M. Unlocking Trusts, (2005) Pg 37, 38, 42-44 [7]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1970) AC 508, Penner, J. E. The Law of Trusts, 4th Edition(2005), Hodder Stoughton, Pg 25-45 [8]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1971) AC 424, Ramjohn M. Unlocking Trusts, 1st Edition, (2005) 39, 42, 115, 122 [9]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1970)   AC 424, Margaret wilkie Rosalind, Equity Trusts, (2004 -2005), [10]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   [1982] 1 WLR Penner, J. E. The Law of Trusts, (2004), Pg 103- 137 [11]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1979) 1 All ER 296 Hanbury Martin, Modern Equity, 17th Edition, (2005),   Pg 95-116 [12]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1969), WLR 457, 1 Ch 373, Ramjohn M. Unlocking Trusts,(2005) pg 233, 243 [13]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   [1979] ALL ER 359, Ramjohn M. Unlocking Trusts,(2005) pg 240 [14]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   [1976] W.L.R 522, Ch 253, Hanbury Martin, Modern Equity, 17th Edition, (2005) [15]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   [1976] W.L. R   457, Ch 235, Hanbury Martin, Modern Equity, 17th Edition, (2005) [16]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1960) W.L.R. 799 Ch 232, Penner, J. E. The Law of Trusts, (2004), Pg 103- 137 [17]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1842) 11 Lj Ch 176, Hanbury Martin, Modern Equity, (2005), Pg 95-116 [18]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1889) All ER, 41 Ch D 552, Margaret wilkie Rosalind, Equity Trusts, (2004 -2005), 23 [19]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   [1932], IR 255, Margaret wilkie Rosalind, Equity Trusts, (2004 -2005) pg 19 [20]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   [1934] CA, Ch 342, Hanbury Martin, Modern Equity, (2005),   Pg 95-116 [21]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   [1876] WN. 170, Penner, J. E. The Law of Trusts, (2004), pg. 280 [22]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   [1932] WLR. 327 1 Ch 38, Ramjohn M. Unlocking Trusts, 1st Edition, (2005), pg. 232 235

Exporting and the Export Contract Translation Into Vietnamese Essay Example for Free

Exporting and the Export Contract Translation Into Vietnamese Essay The first reason is that the contract contains and covers all the terms which the two parties have come to the agreement. This means that any external document has to be expressly incorporated into the contract. Besides, This is to prevent any ambiguity about the status of any earlier agreements or understandings. Both parties shall only base on the contract to perform their obligations. The last point is to prevent any disagreements and dispute arsing from the difference between the previous drafts and the contract so that the contract can be immediately executed for both parties’ sakes ? A contract normally includes wording the following elements: †¢An entire agreement statement: a statement in the contract that the parties agree that the terms of the contract between them are to be found within the text of the contract document and nowhere else. All entire agreement clauses include this element †¢An exclusion of liability for misrepresentation: most entire agreement clauses include one or more of the following: An acknowledgment by the parties that they have not relied on any representation which is not set out in the contract; A statement excluding liability for misrepresentation

7 Eleven Target Market

7 Eleven Target Market This investigation of the small business, 7-Eleven chain store, was conducted over two month period from July, with many sources of information, such as the actual stores and the information from internet. The 7-Eleven chain store was established as an ice house in Dallas, Texas in 1927, and it is one of the worlds largest operator, franchisor and licensor of convenience stores. This article seeks to explore a comprehensive description and understanding about 7-Eleven and try to find out the secret of success, as well as giving some suggestions. The 7-eleven chain store was started out in 1927 and was introduced to Australia in 1977. An ice dock employee in the Southland Ice Company began to offer milk, bread and eggs on Sundays and evenings when grocery stores were closed. This new business idea produced satisfied customers and then the chain store was established. In November 2005, 7-Eleven, Inc. became an indirect subsidiary of Seven I Holdings Company, a Japan-based organization. Their prime function is to consistently serve the changing needs of customers for their convenience. The store can always adapt quickly to meet the customers changing needs. It is the most obvious feature that makes it different from other convenience stores. With the newest products and services applying in the store, and the newest ways of business operation, the store can be operated more efficiently than others. For short, the perpetual improvement made the store keeping ahead in so many brands of chain stores. As a convenience store, 7-Eleven mainly faces three types of competitors. The first on is supermarkets, such as Wal-Mart. Second, small shops (probably not has a brand). Third, other brands of convenience stores, such as Lawson (founded in 1975 in Japan). The targeted customer is young single working people, usually un-married, as a result, the location of 7-Eleven always near office buildings, shopping malls, parking lots, subway station, et al. Besides the traveler is also its main customer. In Australia, stores in suburban areas often operate as petrol stations (wikipedia.org, 2010). 7-eleven, Inc. is the words largest convenience retail chain. The company operates franchises and licenses more than 7,100 stores in the U.S. and 7-Eleven licensees and affiliates operate approximately 31,400 7-Eleven and other convenience stores in countries including Japan, Taiwan, Thailand, South Korea, China, Australia, et al (7-eleven.com, 2010). The main distribution of 7-eleven around the word can be seem in the table bellow fig.1 Fig.1 the main distribution of 7-Eleven around the word Territory First Store Opened Number of Locations United States 1968 584 Canada + 1969 457 Mexico 1971 1,180 Japan 1971 12,753 Australia 1977 397 Sweden 1978 191 Taiwan 1980 4,735 China (Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Guangzhou Macau) 1981, 1992, 1996, and 2005, respectively 1,680 Singapore 1983 493 Philippines 1984 469 Malaysia 1984 1,115 Norway 1986 177 South Korea 1989 2,282 Thailand 1989 5,409 Denmark 1993 126 Beijing, PRC 2004 93 Shanghai, PRC 2009 20 Indonesia 2009 5 Rsource: http://corp.7-eleven.com/AboutUs/InternationalLicensing/tabid/115/Default.aspx (4) Suppliers It can be seen from the table bellow that the most commodity of 7-Eleven is food, in which the processed food account most. As a result, the main supplier of 7-Eleven is food maker, especially who produce the processed food. The non-food products suppliers is various, such the provider of a variety of prepaid card. Fig.2 the commodity composition of 7-Eleven Product Type Percent% food 75 processed food 31.5à ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ fast food 30 selling foodà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã‹â€ such as milk, cheeseà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã¢â‚¬ ° 13 non-food products 25 Data resource: http://www.7-11bj.com.cn/com_1.html 4. Personnel Details To achieve their business goals, the store has many different departments that people or the technical equipment can help the store improve and perform better. Business Consultants A Business Consultant is a 7-Eleven employee assigned to the store and who visits the store twice a week. The business consultants can help the store in the following ways: Assist in the development of budgets and business plans for the store Provide advice, coaching and assistance on how to improve the business Assist with the analysis of the stores sales  data Provide continual training and guidance on the ever-improving system of the store Promote efficiency to help maximize the stores profitability Daily Deliveries Combined Distribution Centers pull products from multiple suppliers matched to the stores order and deliver daily to the store-everything from the proprietary Fresh Foods and Fresh Bakery items to dairy, eggs and snack foods. The delivery time is scheduled, so the employer know when to expect it The employer receive fewer deliveries during the day, when customer traffic is heaviest The delivery reduce the chance of running out of stock because it can replenish  items daily The employer are able to consolidate work, so he/she can spend more time satisfying his/her customers and growing the business The Advertising Support The advertising support can be seen in the following ways: TV and radio spots Billboards Websites Public relations Point-of-purchase materials 5. Technology (1) An efficient information network According to the needs and development of business, 7-Eleven has established a highly efficient comprehensive integrated information network. The overall systematic chain management can be realized through it. The main functions of the integrated information network are follows: Collecting the sales information of commodity, forecasting the orders, and releasing the orders data regularly Analyzing the ordering information of multiple store by POS System, and sent the result to manufacturers and wholesalers automatically; analyzing the selling data of different stores and sent the result to all stores automatically; analyzing the whole operation management information of the enterprise. The goods manufacturer begins to prepare the orders after receiving the data, and the wholesalers begin to prepare the ordered merchandise. The distribution centers begin to distribute the merchandise to all chain stores after receiving the merchandise specific details of headquarters through POS system. The information network is fully used in sales, ordering, purchasing, commodity inspection, accounting, etc. The network takes a mean of automatic processing in receiving order, data processing and transmitting, summons issuing, credit managing, et al., achieving business automation processing. The whole efficiency of the operation is improved greatly. à ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã‹â€ 2à ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã¢â‚¬ °Advanced logistics and distribution system Aggregate distribution is the unique distribution system of 7-Eleven. 7-Eleven has establish a common distribution center which gather the merchandize of the manufacturers that delivered by other wholesalers. The transport efficiency is improved greatly as the increased of delivery amount of goods to every stores and the reducing of delivery times. The delivery distant and time is reduced greatly as the shrinking of the distribution area. 6. Government regulations (1) Merchandise The products they provided are classified in different criteria. Besides the basic classification, the products are classified as products that are needed in the morning, afternoon, late afternoon, evening and late night, which is extraordinary and convenient for customers to choose the goods they need. (2) Worker The 7-Eleven Way principles are illustrated in the acronym as the follows: (See Fig.3) I CARE about People Teamwork. Fig. 3 The 7-Eleven Way principles about People Teamwork ICARE(the acronym) I- Integrity C-Customer Focus A-Accountability R-Recognition E-Excellent Execution (3) Marketing Principles The following four marketing principles have been stressed and must be followed by workers. Complete merchandizeput the merchandize that customer need most; Fresh management keep the merchandise fresh in 24 hours; Clean storekeep the shop clean in 24 hours; Smile service play the charming of smile service. 7. Global business environment On one hand, convenience store has a broad prospect with the urbanization and economic development. Convenience store is a very promising new type. As matter of fact, convenience stores has become one of the lifestyle is modern fast-paced life. On the other hand, convenience stores will also become one of the most competitive retail industries for its nature. For 7-Eleven, both opportunities and challenges exist. In over all, it has a good global business environment, the market demand is greater and greater, but the competition between convenience store has become more and more drastic. 8. The Business Strategies The key for the success of a chain store is convenience, which is also the primary factor for its survive. The main function of the chain store is 24 hours business everyday. In Adelaide, open 24/7 is the key to success for 7-Eleven. The opening hours of is area is 9am 5pm, so it is very difficult for people to find shop at night. Besides, only small part convenience stores open in 24-hour. 7-Eleven introduced convenience for customers to more deeply realize that the convenience meaning the full benefit of the customer to do everything. For example, the toilets free of charge to the customer open, free use of parking lots. As long as there is demand, do not buy goods, and the staff does not have to say hello, you can use the convenience store facilities. In fact, free use of only a handful, or bread, Fan Tuanzi, or a bottle of water, consumers will buy something from the store back. Convenience stores are open already from the time of SEVEN-ELVEN (from 7 am to 11 pm), to 24 small businesses development, according to different store locations, the golden hours each shop is different (Fei Ming-shengà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…’2002). A large number of consumers go to the convenience store to buy lunch and drinks. In addition, 7-Eleven store often operating at night prime time, due to the phenomenon that work overtime is widespread, many people snack on his way home almost all the convenience stores, convenience that fully reflects the store characteristics. Importantly, the efficiency of the center in order to provide services, the services they give full play to the wide differences in the role of the individual into the retail market. Best to chase Japanese 7-Eleven differentiated services, in order to complete every 7- Eleven convenience store customers into the life situations and let the container on the goods naturally waving to customers. Although the pavement area of 7-Eleven convenience store is only 30-40 square meters, it operates more than 3,000 kinds of commodities, daily average sales of 4 million per unit area of 2.35 million yen sales, capital turnover rate  up to 43 times a year (Fu tie-shan, 2004). 7-Eleven convenience store business model is the most lively and diverse, such as convenience stores not only sell food and beverages, newspapers, magazines, tobacco, health care products, such as three meals a day, but also pre-order disc CD, seasonal merchandise, and a variety of payment services and ATM (ATM) services and other financial ticket.  Receive e-mail service launched recently, the formation of a truly integrated approach to facilitate the center of home life.24-hour convenience stores and can thus meet the needs of consumers at different levels (Zhou Jia-gao, 2002). The SWOT mode of 7-Eleven can draw as follows from the analysis above. Fig.4 SWOT mode of 7-Eleven Strengthà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¡ (1) Wide marketing channels There are many stores (2) Related services is many The product exploitation capabilities is excellent (3) A large number of original products which has great attraction to customers (4) Good brand image (5) Regularly updated the product information Opportunity: (1) The demand is large and the market has a great potential (2) Has a good cooperation and relationship with many companies which will create many business opportunities. (3) The consumption habits of people will be changed. Weakness: (1) The price is a little higher than other stores (2) Larger number purchase is not available Threat: (1) the market of convenience store will be saturation (2) Facing the threat of sales promotion launched by supermarkets (3) Peer competition (4) Can not meet consumer brand with special preference 9. Recommendations (1) Customer focus Why can 7-Eleven always attract different customer groups of different cities and regions? How 7-Eleven master the demand of customers. The word of Toshifumi Suzuki, the owner of 7-Eleven can always unveil the hidden meaning that the key of retail business in nowadays psychology rather than not economics (Pilieci, 2009.). Indeed, the competition between convenience stores is not the pace of expansion or the price. The main consumer group is of convenience store is white-collar workers and single people, etc. They rarely seek cheaper. Therefore, the competition between stores will ultimately fall to the service. The beliefthe satisfaction of customer needs is the key to the success of retail industryis the consistent idea of 7-Eleven. As a result, 7-Eleven establishes has established the operation tenet of follow the need of various customer needs. 7-Eleven constantly study and explore the products customers really want and how to meet customer needs from the view, thinking and action of customers. This is why 7-Eleven can take the good business strategies I mentioned above. (2) Brand strategy Brand management is an inevitable process if an enterprise wants to be success. 7-Eleven now not is only stand for convenient, but also the representation of safe and secure. Sometimes, even though the price in 7-Eleven is slightly higher than other stores, customer will still buy things in 7-Eleven. 7-Eleven has become a close friend of our people. We like it and trust it. The founder has realized that most of the goods in convenience store are necessities which are so comment that anyone can open a convenience store; only those who win the favorite of customer can win the business. At the early days, 7-Eleven has designed its logos and operated it continually and seriously. (3) Characteristic operation Although the 7-Eleven is a convenience store, it has carried out the characteristic operation in service and products which make it different from other store. For example, the targeted customers of 7-Eleven is young single working people; 24 hours operation, etc. Convenience store is a very promising new type industry. Convenience stores and shopping has become one of the lifestyles in modern fast-paced life. For the convenience store, the customer needs need to be focused with great effort. It also should try to development its characteristic convenience services and products. Meanwhile, for the development of a company, a good brand is essential. The successful experience of 7-11 convenience stores not only worthy leaning of convenience store industry, but also left much consideration and revelation to the development of other industries. 10. Reference wikipedia.org, 2010.7-Eleven, Fu Tie-shan, 2004. The successful experience of 7-11 convenience stores in Japan and its enlightenment, Jiangsu Business Discussion,07(3),p,24. Zhou Jia-gao, 2002. The success of 7-11 convenience stores in Japan, Management Science Digest. 44(06), P. 34. Fei Ming-shengà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…’2002.Franchise in China: Inspiration of the Success of Japanese 7-11 Self-service Storesà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…’Business Research,11(05),p.124. Pilieci, V., 2009. 7-Eleven unplugs phone deal, moves Hundreds of cellphone owners left on hold by sale to Quickie. Ottawa Citizen. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7-ElevenRetrieved September 5, 2010. http://www.ottawacitizen.com/news/ottawa/Eleven+unplugs+phone+deal+moves/2161149/story.html. Retrieved September 1, 2010.

Pollution on the Family Farm Threatens the Environment :: Water Polluting Essays Papers

Pollution on the Family Farm When you think of pollution you think of industrial pollution running down a river, or smoke coming out of a factory’s smokestack rising up into the environment. These are all concerns in the world today; however, in this paper will talk about pollution that hits a little closer to home. This paper will discuss about pollution on family run farms in rural America. These pollutions range from private well water contamination to fecal pollution run-off into streams by dairy and beef farms. One of the major concerns in today’s Agricultural system is the use of water, and the short supply of water. A more immediate problem is nitrate contamination in millions of private well around the country. As one can imagine most of these wells are found on private farms around the United States. Nationally 1.4 million households drink water from private wells with nitrate levels that exceed the federal drinking water standard of 10 parts per million (ppm)( Ready, R., & Henken, K.). There is an estimated damage to a household from drinking water from a nitrate contaminated well to be $635 per year, with a total damage of almost $900 million per year to private well owners (Ready, R., & Henken, K.). Over 25% of the water used by households in the United States comes from groundwater. One of the major sources of nitrates in groundwater is caused by agricultural activities, including chemicals applied to crops and waste from livestock production (Ready, R., & Henken, K.). The main problem with livestock waste and chemicals is their tendency to diffuse in water, which means they cannot be easily contained or pinpointed to the source. According to a study by the Great Plains Agricultural Council, agricultural land is the largest contributor of non-point source pollution to natural water resources in the High Plains region and throughout the United States. In this survey they found that Nitrate-N was the most commonly detected agricultural chemical in surface and groundwater (Elrashidi, M., Mays, M., Peaslee, S., & Hooper, D.) Another topic that ties into pollution and threatens water resources is agricultural subsidies provided by the government. A report from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development says that â€Å"Agricultural subsidies threaten land and water resources and create artificial incentives to expand farm production† (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development). Pollution on the Family Farm Threatens the Environment :: Water Polluting Essays Papers Pollution on the Family Farm When you think of pollution you think of industrial pollution running down a river, or smoke coming out of a factory’s smokestack rising up into the environment. These are all concerns in the world today; however, in this paper will talk about pollution that hits a little closer to home. This paper will discuss about pollution on family run farms in rural America. These pollutions range from private well water contamination to fecal pollution run-off into streams by dairy and beef farms. One of the major concerns in today’s Agricultural system is the use of water, and the short supply of water. A more immediate problem is nitrate contamination in millions of private well around the country. As one can imagine most of these wells are found on private farms around the United States. Nationally 1.4 million households drink water from private wells with nitrate levels that exceed the federal drinking water standard of 10 parts per million (ppm)( Ready, R., & Henken, K.). There is an estimated damage to a household from drinking water from a nitrate contaminated well to be $635 per year, with a total damage of almost $900 million per year to private well owners (Ready, R., & Henken, K.). Over 25% of the water used by households in the United States comes from groundwater. One of the major sources of nitrates in groundwater is caused by agricultural activities, including chemicals applied to crops and waste from livestock production (Ready, R., & Henken, K.). The main problem with livestock waste and chemicals is their tendency to diffuse in water, which means they cannot be easily contained or pinpointed to the source. According to a study by the Great Plains Agricultural Council, agricultural land is the largest contributor of non-point source pollution to natural water resources in the High Plains region and throughout the United States. In this survey they found that Nitrate-N was the most commonly detected agricultural chemical in surface and groundwater (Elrashidi, M., Mays, M., Peaslee, S., & Hooper, D.) Another topic that ties into pollution and threatens water resources is agricultural subsidies provided by the government. A report from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development says that â€Å"Agricultural subsidies threaten land and water resources and create artificial incentives to expand farm production† (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development).

Establish Clear Expectations and Consequences :: essays papers

Establish Clear Expectations and Consequences In order to ensure that classroom learning is conducive to both the physical and emotional growth of the student, rules that explain what behavior is expected need to be reviewed. Chen, Horsche, and Nelson (1999) believe that giving children choices will help them develop a sense of ownership in regard to the learning process. Let the students decide how they will follow the rules. By working together, everyone has an opportunity to contribute to the overall environment of their classroom. After rules and procedures are established, it is important that the teacher admires good performance and provides negative consequences for unacceptable behavior. According to Marzano and Marzano (2003), the use of both verbal and physical reactions will help teachers reinforce classroom procedures (p.8). Simple physical signs like a â€Å"thumbs up† or a verbal â€Å"good job† will show the students that good behavior is recognized. Also, a teacher must be consistent with punishments for those who disregard the rules. â€Å"How you handle a situation with any student will teach that student something – as well as everyone else in the room† (Solan, 2002). It is essential that the teacher communicates immediately with a misbehaving student. Using different methods, like simply moving closer to the one who is disruptive, could be a cue which may reduce the chance of interrupting the whole class (Petch-Hogan & Murdick, 1996). A warning can often be eno ugh to correct improper behavior, thereby avoiding the need to assert full punishment. Communication Must Remain Open The best way to ensure a good classroom environment is to make sure that communications remain open between school officials, teacher, and parents (Brophy, 1982). This creates a feeling of trust within the classroom. Without being able to communicate properly, learning can not take place. Students with dialects, different languages, and backgrounds will make up many classrooms. Woolfolk (2004) feels that â€Å"communication is at the heart of teaching and culture affects communication† (p.174). Adjusting to different languages and cultures is a difficult task. Therefore, it will take everyone’s help to create a safe environment in the classroom. Know and Respect Your Students The headlines in Educational Psychology sum up that a good teacher will know, respect, and teach her students (Woolfolk, 2004). Teachers should never discriminate and always respect each child as an individual (Eggen, Jacobsen, & Kauchak, 1993).

Medical Technology Essay

One of the most recently trending topics is how efficient the use of technology is. Many people suggest that today’s technology can potentially bring downfalls to this generation’s youth by addicting them into depending on it. What these people are forgetting to ask themselves is, â€Å"What benefits could today’s technology potentially bring? † Multiple correct answers to this question in a view that affects my life are well-explained in â€Å"Google Glass’s Efficient Applications in the ER† from Technology News on kgw. com. The article examines the effectiveness of Google’s newest invention, Google Glass, from a medical point of view. Since Google Glass has proven to be helpful in the emergency room, this concept affects my life due to my set-in-stone plan to pursue a career in the medical field. Google Glass’s â€Å"apps† help provide better patient care, which also explains to technology oppositionists just how efficient the use of technology is. The apps that Google Glass is suited with are composed of hands-free features. These features include taking pictures and recording video. In addition, you are able to share these pictures and videos via message or even live-stream. To send a message to a recipient, all the user needs to do is speak to Glass. Glass even allows you to search the internet for whatever is on your mind. The new technology even allows its user to translate foreign words and phrases into your own language. Lastly, and least importantly, another key feature of this new technology is its GPS navigational system. All of these hands-free features that Google Glass provides can be used in more than just a practical way (â€Å"Google†). When doctors give care to their patients, their care could possibly be relying on technology that assists the doctor. In some cases, this technology could be something as little as a stethoscope. Other times, the technology that doctors rely on could be something huge and complex, such as a computer. Either way, it is clear that a doctor’s use of technology is for better and more efficient patient care. With that in mind, Google Glass’s hands-free features show potential to implement Glass as a new, global, medical technology. Each feature that Glass is equipped with (beside the handy GPS navigational system) can be proven to assist doctors, allowing them to care for patients more freely (â€Å"Google†). Google Glass’s ability to take pictures and record videos, along with being able to share these pictures and videos, serves a purpose to medical workers by making their job more informational. For example, a first-responder in an emergency situation can capture what is happening during the scene. The first-responder’s visual description comes with its own visual display. When relayed to further patient care such as doctors or surgeons, this kind of information can be crucial to the patient’s survival. This information helps doctors prepare for treatment and know what to expect. The first-responder’s use of Google Glass informs the further patient care, educating them in a way (â€Å"Google†). Speaking of education, Glass’s ability to share and live-stream its pictures and videos can be used in an educational aspect. Descriptive pictures of medical content can be sent to an instructional doctor’s class, allowing his or her students to maximize the information received. Medical teachings, such as surgery, basic life support, extractions, extrications, etc. can be recorded and shared between pupils to be reviewed, re-watched, studied, etc (â€Å"Google†). This use of Glass can be applied to get a better understanding of how to master medical treatments. Mastering these techniques entitles you as a credible physician with credible experience. Most questions today are no longer answered by taking the time to find a credible source with a credible answer. The people who have these questions resort to searching the internet for a quick answer instead. In order to comply with these people, Google Glass has implemented its search engine into its features. To a doctor, this implement is useful by being able to find quick answers to simple questions while caring for a patient. For example, the doctor may ask Glass, â€Å"What allergic reactions can occur by latex? † in order to answer a patient’s question regarding his or her allergies. A hands-free search engine can also be used to bring up nearby hospitals, pharmacies, fire stations, etc. Glass’s ability to do this saves valuable time that could be used to save lives (â€Å"Google†). Glass’s last notable feature that applies in the emergency room is the ability to translate foreign words or phrases into the user’s own language. This can prove to be helpful in situations where the patient has a heavy accent, does not speak your language very well, or does not speak your language at all. In addition to translating foreign language into your own desired language, you can do the inverse. In order to make the patient feel more at home, more relaxed, and more cared for, doctors could now translate what they have to say into the foreign language the patient uses. Doing this would increase the number of doctors globally, since finding doctors who speak specific languages would be a thing of the past (â€Å"Google†). As a student who sees his future in the medical field, this article is of great importance to me. Seeing what applications are used in the emergency room increases my knowledge on the topic and gives me a better idea of what to expect in the future. I believe that technology plays a major role in the medical field, but I also believe that technology plays a major role in life in general. Google Glass’s features that are not meant for any specific area of use are practical. The use of these features and the outcomes they bring depend on how efficient you believe technology really is. So rather than bashing this new-coming technology as a curse on our youth, we should start to see it as a prosperous opportunity to serve a greater purpose in life.

Describe how the body responds to stress Essay

Acute stress causes the arousal of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The ANS comprises of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) which prepares the individual for ‘fight or flight’ and the parasympathetic branch, which returns the individual to their original state of relaxation. Part of the SNS response is the sympathetic adrenal system (SAM), this system along with the SNS is collectively called the sympathomedullary pathway. The SNS is activated when the neurotransmitter noradrenaline is released and travels to the organs of the body preparing them for rapid action. Common responses to this would be increased heart rate, increased pupil size and metabolic changes such as a release of glycogen into the blood stream. In conjunction with the SNS, the SAM is also activated by an acute stressor causing adrenaline to be released into the blood stream, allowing the body to prepare for fight or flight. The SAM is regulated by both the SNS and the adrenal medulla. The adrenal medulla, which can be found in the adrenal gland near the kidneys, has two distinct zones, the adrenal medulla in the middle and the adrenal cortex around the outside. Neurons from the SNS travel to the medulla, so that when it is activated it releases adrenaline into the bloodstream. This adrenaline then has widespread effects on the physiological systems in the body e.g. boosting the supply of oxygen to the brain, and suppressing non-emergency bodily processes such as digestion. The parasympathetic nervous system will become active once the stressor has passed in order to relax the individual again and to re-start bodily functions that may have been repressed during the stressful period. The body deals with more long-term stress differently as it could not function long-term if it were to constantly be in the aroused via the ANS. The body uses the pituitary-adrenal system to regulate chronic physical or emotional stress, a process that takes about 20mins to complete. Once the body has identified the stressor as being chronic that information stimulates the hypothalamus which is responsible for controlling the body’s hormonal systems. Activation of a particular region of the hypothalamus, the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) leads to the production of a chemical messenger, corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF), which is released into the bloodstream in response to the stressor. On arrival at the anterior lobe of  the pituitary gland, CRF causes the pituitary to produce and release adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH). From the pituitary, ACTH is transported in the bloodstream to its target site in the adrenal glands, located on top of the kidneys. ACTH then causes the adrenal cortex to release cortisol which has several effects on the body. Primarily it gives the individual a burst of energy and lowers their sensitivity to pain, however it also impairs cognitive performance, increases blood pressure and lowers the immune system. The pituitary-adrenal system is self-regulating with both the hypothalamus and pituitary glands using receptors to regulate the amount of CRF and ACTH in the body to maintain an appropriate level of cortisol in the bloodstream. Outline and evaluate research into life changes as a source of stress (6+6 marks) Rahe et al (1970) – wanted to study normal people (i.e. not ill people) to see if the number of life changing events was positively correlated with illness. They used a military sample of 2700 naval men aboard 3 US Navy ships. They were all given a questionnaire (the SRE) just before they started a tour of duty which was based on the SRRS that Holmes and Rahe had originally devised. The questionnaire asked them about all the life events they had experienced over the previous 6 months. After about 7 months of duty they were given an illness score which was calculated based on the number, type and severity of all illnesses recorded during the tour of duty. Rahe et al found a positive correlation of +.118 between the life changing units (LCU) score they received from the SRE before going on tour, and the illness score they received following the tour. A high LCU score shows that the individual had b een through significant amounts of stress (either positive or negative), and so a positive correlation with their illness score would suggest that experiencing stressful life changes does lead to more problems with health. Michael and Ben-Zur (2007) – studied 130 men and women, half of whom had been recently divorced and half recently widowed. They looked at levels of life satisfaction and unsurprisingly found that in the widowed group there was a higher satisfaction before their bereavement than after their loss. However, in the separated group they found the opposite, that individuals in fact reported more life satisfaction following their divorce than they had had before the separation. There are  several ways to explain this as it may be the result of a more positive outlook now they felt more in control of their lives instead of being ‘restricted’ by a partner, or perhaps they were now dating or living with someone new who made them feel happier. The SRRS suggests that any life-changing event has the potential to be harmful to health; however critics like Jones and Bright (2001) claim that in fact it is the quality of the event which dictates its impact. Undesired, unschedule d and uncontrolled events seem to be the ones which cause greatest negative effect. The key flaw in the SRRS is that it ignores individual differences, as different people will view the same life event as creating different levels of stress for them based on their situation, personality etc. For example the death of a partner may be devastating for one person but a blessed relief for another and yet both people would be given the same LCU score. Therefore it is not suitable to use a standard method of categorising individual stress levels when everyone is different. There is an issue of reliability in life change research as it is retrospective meaning reports may not be accurate or consistent as they are based on memory which can prove unreliable. Brown (1974) suggests that people who are unwell may feel the need to provide an explanation for their illness, and therefore are more likely to report stressful events than those who are not ill. Indeed Rahe’s research of Naval personnel relied on the participants accurately recording life events prior to their tour of duty but some may have forgotten events, while others may have over-elaborated, which would have ultimately affected their scores. Discuss two explanations of why people conform (4+4 marks) Normative Social Influence – deciding to comply through conformity without adopting that viewpoint. This may be as a result of feeling pressure from a majority and not wanting to be rejected from a group by dissenting as humans strive to develop and maintain social companionship. Therefore dissenting behaviour would risk social rejection and may damage relationships so we avoid it by conforming. Informational Social Influence – Conforming to others due to a genuine belief that they are right. This would involve not just compliant behaviour but also a change in our own thought processes to align with those of the majority thinking. This is most likely to happen when a situation is ambiguous, a crisis, or we believe others to be experts. Normative social influence is particularly effective when a group has low quality inter-personal relationships. Garandeau and Cillessen (2006) found that people in these types of groups may be manipulated by a skilful bully so that victimisation of another child provides the group with a common goal. This suggests that the effectiveness of normative social influence is dependent on the type of relationships within the group. Informational social influence may explain the development and maintenance of social stereotypes. Wittenbrink and Henly (1996) found that participants exposed to negative comparison information about African Americans (which was presented as the majority view) later reported more negative beliefs about a black target individual. This suggests that we can be persuaded to alter our viewpoint permanently that we will continue to stick to the new view even in other contexts. There is evidence to support the idea that we seek information from other in ambiguous situat ions in order to form our own opinion. Fein et al (2007) found that political opinions of individuals shifted after showing them the reactions of others while watching a political debate. This suggests that when a situation has no obvious answers we look to others to help us create a judgement. Outline and evaluate research into obedience (6+6 marks) Following the execution of Adolf Eichmann in 1963 for his part in the murder of Jewish people during the Holocaust, Milgram was interested to see whether Adolf’s defence that he was ‘only obeying orders’ had any real truth to it. He advertised for male volunteers to take part in a study into the how punishment affects learning. He offered all of the 40 participants who took part $4.50 and told them they would receive their payment even if they didn’t complete the full study. In addition to the participants there were also two confederates who were playing the role of the experimenter (an authority figure) and the learner. On arrival the participant and confederate were asked to draw straws for who would be learner and who would be teacher but this was rigged so that the participant was always the teacher. The participant was then told that he would be asking the learner a series of questions and if he got the answers wrong then the participant would give hi m an electric shock by pressing a the appropriate level button which would administer the shock to the learner in the next room. The shock  machine consisted of a range of buttons all labelled with voltage and a brief description of what that voltage level means e.g. 300v Intense Shock. The participant was also shown that the machine worked by being shown the learner receiving a mild shock. Initially Milgram had prepped the learner to get most of the questions wrong and told him to receive his shocks silently up until 300v when he was to bang on the wall and give no response to the next question. The learner was told to then repeat this at 315 volts, and from them on say and do nothing in response to the shocks. Milgram had also asked the experimenter to give prods to the participants if they asked to stop e.g. ‘It is absolutely essential that you continue’. Before the experiment Milgram had asked psychiatrists, college students and colleagues to predict how far they thought participants would go before refusing to obey. Consistently they all predicted that very few would go beyond 150 volts and only 4% would reach 300 volts. They also predicted only a pathological fringe of about 1 in 1000 would go up to 450 volts. In fact, 65% of the participants in his initial experiment continued to 450 volts and all of them went up to 300 volts with only 12.5% of them stopping at that point. One of the major criticisms of the Milgram study is related to the ethical issues it raised. Milgram deceived participants by lying about the purpose of the study which means true informed consent was not given. However, Milgram argued that the experiment would not have worked if they had known its purpose. Secondly, although he offered them the right to withdraw it can be argued that this was cancelled out by the prods that the experimenter gave to the participants, which may have made them doubt whether they could discontinue the experiment. Baumrind (1964) also attacked Milgram’s research saying that he had placed the participants under great emotional strain, causing psychological damage. Milgram responded by saying he couldn’t have predicted the level of strain the experiment would cause and he fully debriefed participants after the experiment and again a year later and in fact found that 74% felt they had learnt something of personal importance from the experience. Milgram’s experiment was lab-based which meant it was not a true test of whether obe dience would occur in real-life. Hofling et al (1966) conducted a study on nurses to see if they would follow an order from a doctor that contravened hospital regulations. They found that all but one of the 22 participants did as they were told and obeyed the  order they were given, suggesting that even in a real-life setting obedience levels are similar to that of Milgram’s findings. However, Jacobson (1975) conducted a similar real-life study but used a well-known drug and allowed the nurses to consult with each other before making a decision (which is a more realistic representation of hospital practices). He found that the obedience level dropped to just 11%, suggesting that people in real-life aren’t actually as obedient as Milgram’s lab results showed. Discuss the role of minority influence in social change (6+6 marks) Minority Influence – Moscovici (1976) believed that it was not only majority influence that led to groups being able to exert pressure on individuals. He said that without an outspoken minority advocating a different way of doing things, we would have no innovation or social change. This suggests that an individual who is exposed to a persuasive argument under certain conditions, they may change their own views to match those of the minority. There are four conditions necessary for social change to come about via minority influence 1) Drawing attention to an issue – when an issue is drawn to our attention via a minority it creates a conflict of views which we become motivated to reduce through various resolution methods which in turn draw further attention to the issue making it more likely to gain further exposure. 2) The role of conflict – when a minority view cannot be easily dismissed as obviously abnormal it forces us to examine their arguments more closely. This may not cause a complete shift to the minority view but it will cause an individual to re-examine and perhaps have a more balanced view of a given situation, which may in turn weaken the majority view over time if the minority view continues to spread 3) Consistency – If arguments are presented consistently by a minority then they will be taken more seriously, as the assumption is that the view holder must really believe that what they a re saying is true 4) The augmentation principle – If it is risky to hold a particular viewpoint and yet a minority still does then they will be taken more seriously by others in the group because they appear willing to suffer for their views. This will then lead to the impact of their position on other groups members to be increased or ‘augmented’ which may make them more influential in bringing about social change. The suffragettes are a classic example of how minority influence can bring about social change. All four of the necessary conditions needed for social change to occur via minority  influence can be seen in the way they campaigned for rights for women. They drew attention to their issue by employing educational, political and occasionally militant tactics. The role of conflict was seen when members of the majority started to move their views in line with the new way of thinking that the suffragettes were proposing. The suffragette message was consistent regardless of the attitudes of others over a 15 year period and even when they were jailed for civil disobedience. The suffragettes also showed that they were willing to suffer for the cause by risking imprisonment and even death from hunger strike, causing people from the majority viewpoint to start to augment their views with those of the campaigners. As a general rule, most people will go along with the crowd and maintain the status quo which puts minority groups at a distinct disadvantage as they lack social power and are seen by the majority as ‘deviant’. People will often avoid agreeing with a minority view as they then risk being seen as different themselves which has a negative connotation. This suggests that minority influence is latent, creating the potential for change rather than actual change. Describe one research study that has investigated the duration of STM (6 marks) Peterson and Peterson in 1959 aimed to conduct a piece of research which would study the duration of the short-term memory. They created a lab experiment which they believed would allow them to monitor how long a piece of information could be held in the STM without rehearsal. They used an opportunity sample of 24 students from the university that they worked at in the US and tested their recall using an independent measures design. The research began the test by saying a consonant syllable (nonsense trigram) followed by a three-digit number e.g. WJF 872. They were careful to ensure that the consonant syllable had no obvious meaning which would make it easier to remember e.g. BBC. As soon as the participant had heard the three-digit number they had to start counting backwards in threes from that number until told to stop. The idea behind this difficult counting task was to stop the participants being able to rehearse the consonant syllable, thus keeping it in their STM for longer and aiding recall. Each participant was given two practice trials to get used to the experiment and then 8 trials where the results were recorded. On each of the trials the retention  interval (time spent counting backwards) increased: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds. The Peterson’s found that when the retention interval was only 3 seconds, about 90% of the participants could accurately recall the consonant syllable but when the interval was 18 seconds only about 2% could recall it. The conclusion made by the Petersons was that STM lasts for approximately 20 seconds without rehearsal before the information is lost from the store. Outline one strength of using a case study to study memory and one weakness of using a case study to study memory (6 marks) Strength – One strength of using case studies to study memory is that they allow researchers to gather lots of rich data over a long period of time (that is both quantitative and qualitative) about a specific unique case of brain damage. In the study of HM, researchers were able to gather information about all aspects of HM’s memory problems allowing them to draw conclusions about STM and LTM that may not have been possible from simply studying ‘healthy’ brains. This suggests that being able to study brains that have been damaged and so don’t work properly allows researchers to make conclusions about how a healthy brain works. Weakness – One weakness of using case studies to study memory is that they are often focused on someone who has suffered a trauma leading to brain damage which affects their memory. The problem with this is that it does not allow researchers to gain data from before the trauma making comparisons difficult and therefore it is harder to draw conclusions. In the case of KF who had suffered a motorcycle accident which affected his STM the researchers could not establish whether the level of trauma he had experienced, the actual brain damage he had suffered, or simply KF’s memory ability prior to the accident, were the cause of his STM problems. This suggests that the results of case studies on memory lack internal validity and so cannot be generalised to a wider population. Outline and evaluate the multi-store model of memory (6+6 marks) The Multi-store model of memory (MSM) was proposed by Atkinson and Shriffin in 1968 and aims to illustrate how information is processed in our brains in order to form memories. The model states that information enters the sensory memory store (SM) from the environment via the 5 senses. The SM has a large capacity but a very limited duration meaning that information is almost  immediately forgotten unless it is paid attention to. If attention is paid then the information will move into the short-term memory (STM) which is another temporary store, although the duration is slightly longer than the SM as information will remain for about 20 seconds before being forgotten. However, if maintenance rehearsal is used (repeating the information over and over either out loud or in your head) then information will remain in the STM for longer. The STM generally uses acoustic encoding due to the process of rehearsal and it can hold roughly 5-9 chunks of information at any one time. If the information is then added to by using elaborative rehearsal to make the information more meaningful then it will move into the long-term memory (LTM). The LTM has an infinite capacity and duration and tends to use semantic encoding. Once information has been stored in the LTM it can be retrieved for later use via the STM. There is also research evidence to support the concept of there being separate unitary stores within memory. Beardsley (1997) and Squire et al (1992) studied the brain using brain scanning techniques and found that when the short-term memory is being used for a task then the prefrontal cortex is active and when the long-term memory is being used for a task then the hippocampus is active. This suggests that there are indeed different stores for memory and that separate parts of the brain are active when they are being used . There is evidence to suggest that STM and LTM are not in fact unitary stores. Shallice and Warrington (1970) studied KF, a brain damaged patient, and found that he struggled to process verbal information in the STM but had no impairment with processing of visual information in this store. This suggests that the STM is in fact not one single store but may be made up of multiple components which undermines the MSM’s proposal of unitary stores. There is also evidence to suggest that the STM and LTM are not in fact separate stores but may work together to process information. Ruchkin et al (2003) found that the brains of participants recalling lists of real words more active than the brains of those recalling pseudo-words. He concluded that this was because the real words were being processed using previous knowledge and experience from the LTM whereas the pseudo words (which have no meaning) were only processed by the STM. This suggests that the linear relationship between STM and LTM in the MSM is not accurate and that in fact the STM may actually be part of the LTM. Outline and evaluate the working memory model (6+6 marks) The Working Memory Model (WMM) was proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) they aimed to explain how information is processed in the bit of the memory that is used when an individual is working on a complex task. The basis of their model was that the STM was not just one single store but in fact is made up of several components. This was based on the fact that people seem to be able to perform two taks with equal accuracy simultaneously unless similar types of processing are required (e.g. two visual tasks at the same time). The first element to their model is the central executive (CE) which coordinates all the information the memory working memory system receives. It decides where to send incoming information which is received from the senses or the LTM and has to do this efficiently as it has limited capacity. There are three slave systems which operate under the CE, one of which is the Phonological Loop (PL). The PL was further subdivided by Baddeley in 1986 to form the phonologica l store (PS) and the articulatory process (AP). The PS stores any information which the individual hears, like an inner ear, while the AP uses the inner voice to silently repeat the information the individual has heard or seen (maintenance rehearsal). Another slave system is the visuo-spatial sketchpad which is used for planning spatial tasks and temporarily storing visual or spatial information. The final slave system is the episodic buffer which was added to the model in 2000 by Baddeley as he realised that the model lacked a general store which could hold both visual and acoustic information for more than a few seconds. Information from the other two slave systems, the CE and the LTM can be stored in the episodic buffer to create a complete memory which can then be transferred to the LTM for more permanent storage. Evidence from brain-damaged patients supports the WMM’s proposal of different stores for different types of processing in the STM. Shallice and Warrington (1970) studied KF who, following a motorcycle accident , had problems with some aspects of his STM. He seemed to be able to recall visual material quite well but struggled if information was presented acoustically. This suggests that the brain damage KF suffered may have been restricted to his phonological loop, supporting the WMM’s multi-component STM. However, there is also criticism of the CE as some feel that the notion of it being one single store is not accurate. Eslinger and  Damasio (1985) studied EVR who had suffered brain damage during an operation to remove a brain tumour. He still performed well on reasoning tasks but had problems with decision-making. This suggests that only part of his CE was intact and therefore shows that the explanation provided by the WMM of the CE being a single store is not complex enough. A further weakness of the WMM is that much of the research that has been conducted to evidence it comes from case studies. This is a problem as no ‘before and after’ comparisons can be made so it is not clear what actually caused the damage seen. This is evidenced in the case by Shallice and Warrington (1970) of KF who had problems with his STM. It was unclear whether the memory issues KF had were a result of previous memory ability, the trauma of the accident or the damage to his brain. This sug gests that case study evidence lacks validity and so should not be used to evidence the WMM as a general explanation for memory. Evaluate research on cultural variations in attachment (6 marks) The Strange Situation was created by an American psychologist and is based on the US viewpoint of what constitutes ‘normal’ attachment behaviour. Rothbaum et al (2000) claimed that much of attachment theory and research is based in American culture and so using it to evaluate cross-cultural differences is not a fair comparison. This suggests that secure attachment, as outlined in Ainsworth’s research, is not the ideal attachment type to have. This means gaining figures about attachment types from various cultures and labelling them, according to a western viewpoint, is an imposed etic which labels behaviours negatively when actually they may simply fit with the cultural norms of that particular country. There is an alternative explanation for why attachment may seem to have universalities across cultures. Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) suggested that the similarities in attachment behaviours across cultures may also be explained in terms of mass media promoting an ‘ideal’ perception of parenting. This might suggest that similarities in attachment are not due to innate biological influences but are a result of an increasingly globalised world which is receiving similar messages from the mass media. There may be problems with researcher bias in research that aims to explore cultural variations in attachment. Researchers tend to be studying their own culture e.g. Ainsworth’s Strange Situation research in Baltimore, which can lead to assumptions being made based on the previous knowledge of the culture they are researching. The opposite problem  can occur when a researcher undertakes research in a foreign culture e.g. Ainsworth in Uganda. The problem here can be the interpretation of data by the researcher, especially if there is a language barrier as important details may be lost in translation. This suggests that a major flaw with all attachment research is that multiple cultures can never be studied truly objectively.

Leader member exchange theory Essay

Leader Member Exchange Theory Considerable research has shown that leaders can significantly influence individual, group, and organizational performance (Gerstner & Day, 1997; Judge, Piccolo, & Ilies, 2004; Lowe, Kroeck & Sivasubramaniam, 1996). Different leadership theories articulate a number of mechanisms through which leaders have such influences (Northouse, 1997). An alternative approach to understanding leaders’ influence on individual follower or subordinate effectiveness is through the focus on dyadic relationships between leaders and each of their subordinates (Dansereau et al., 1975). LMX, originally called vertical dyadic linkage (VDL), was developed approximately 30 years ago by Dansereau et al. (1975) as a response to average leadership style (ALS), which assumed that leaders maintain similar relationships with all of their employees. LMX broke away from this conceptualization by highlighting the way leaders differentiate between their subordinates by creating in- groups and out-groups. In-group members have high quality exchanges characterized by â€Å"mutual trust, respect, and obligation† (Graen & Uhl-Bien: 227), whereas out-group members have low quality exchanges that have less trust, respect, and obligation. LMX is a dyadic theory that has its roots in role theory (Dienesch & Liden, 1986; Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964) and social exchange theory (Blau, 1964; Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). The basic principle of leader–member exchange (LMX) is that leaders develop different types of exchange relationships with their followers and that the quality of these relationships affects important leader and member attitudes and behaviors (Gerstner & Day, 1997; Liden et al., 1997; Sparrowe & Liden, 1997). LMX suggests that supervisors choose those they like and / or view as strong performers to fill the more important organizational roles. Conversely, the lesser roles are assigned to those subordinates who are less liked or viewed as less capable. Subordinates selected for the more important roles establish close, high-quality LMX relationships with their supervisors, characterized by trust and emotional support (Dienesch & Liden, 1986). From these high-quality relationships, subordinates receive several advantages including formal and informal rewards, favor doing, ample access to supervisors, and increased communication (Dienesch & Liden, 1986; Graen &  Scandura, 1987; Wayne,Shore, & Liden, 1997). On the other hand, subordinates in low-quality LMX relationships have exchanges with their supervisors that reflect low levels of trust and emotional support and few, if any, benefits outside of the formal employment contract (e.g., Dienesch & Liden, 1986). High-quality leader–mem ber relationships or exchanges are characterized by high levels of trust, interaction, support, and formal and informal rewards (Dienesch & Liden, 1986). Such relationships include the exchange of material and nonmaterial goods that extend beyond what is specified in the formal job description (Liden et al., 1997; Liden & Graen, 1980). Research on leader–member exchange (LMX) has shown the value of high-quality leader–member relationships in organizations (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995; Liden, Sparrowe, & Wayne, 1997). Leaders and followers in these high-LMX relationships often report enhanced levels of satisfaction and effectiveness, as well as mutual influence, more open and honest communication, greater access to resources, and more extra-role behaviors (Gerstner & Day, 1997). Low-quality relationships, in contrast, appear to put subordinates at a relative disadvantage in terms of job benefits and career progress (Vecchio, 1997). In low-quality relationships, members receive less access to the supervisor, fewer resources, and more restricted information, potentially leading to dissatisfaction in the job, lower organizational commitment, and employee turnover (Gerstner & Day, 1997). Sparrowe and Liden noted, â€Å"the quality of the member’s exchange relationship with the leader, which is based on the degree of emotional support and exchange of valued resources, is pivotal in determining the member’s fate within the organization† (1997, p. 522). In support of the theory, empirical research indeed has demonstrated that LMX has significant influences on outcomes such as task performance, satisfaction, turnover, and organizational commitment (Gerstner & Day, 1997). So much research on LMX has accumulated, with the large majority focusing on outcomes, that a meta-analysis (Gerstner & Day, 1997), three literature reviews (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995; Liden, Sparrowe, & Wayne, 1997; Schriesheim, Castro, & Cogliser, 1999), and a new book series (Graen, 2004) have been conducted. All five of these research efforts state that positive organizational and individual outcomes are the primary results of high-quality LMX relationships. These positive outcomes are based on role the  ory and social exchange theory as subordinates in high quality exchanges receive better roles, increased communication, higher levels of trust, and increased access to the supervisor. Some of these positive outcomes include higher performance ratings, better objective performance, increased commitment. A number of other LMX studies have focused on how leader and member characteristics such as gender (Milner et al., 2007), socio-economic status (Duchon, Green, & Taber, 1986), and age and education (Tsui & O’Reilly, 1989) may influence the leader-member relationship. In particular, the relationship between gender and LMX has been well documented. Research has shown that supervisors with same-sex subordinates are likely to develop higher quality LMXs than those supervisors of the opposite sex (Milner et al.; Wayne, Liden, & Sparrow, 1994). Further, Lee (1999) found that perceived quality of LMX affects subordinates’ expectat ions in overall communication patterns with the supervisors depending on their gender. Additionally, correlations between subordinates and supervisor rating of LMX were significantly higher for female subordinates of female supervisors than for female subordinates of male supervisors (Varma & Stroh, 2001). LMX theory articulates the development of a work relationship between the supervisor and the subordinate. LMX researchers proposed various models of this process (Dienesch & Liden, 1986; Graen & Scandura, 1987; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). Graen and Scandura’s (1987) role-making model described LMX as comprised of three phases: role-taking, role-making, and role routinization. In the role-taking stage, the leader makes a request or assigns a task and evaluates the member’s behavior and performance to assess the underlying motivation and potential. This phase corresponds to the first step in Dienesch and Liden’s (1986) model in which demographic characteristics and personalities may influence the initial interaction between the two parties. Role-making is the continuation of the developmental process where the nature of the leader–member relationship becomes more defined. It is at this stage that managers and subordinates begin to cement the relationship (Bauer & Green, 1996). The leader provides an opportunity to the member by assigning an unstructured task. If the member accepts that opportunity, the relationship continues to develop into a high-quality exchange relationship (Liden et al., 1997). The third stage is role routinization. At this point,  leader and member develop a common understanding and clear mutual expectations. The behaviors of the leader and member become interlocked (Graen & Scandura, 1987) and the quality of exchange typically remains stable after this phase (Liden et al., 1997). Perspective taking involves the ability to consider and appreciate the perceptions and viewpoints of others and â€Å"see the world through their eyes.† As individuals take the perspectives of others, they understand others‟ behaviors in a way closer to how they understand their own behaviors. As Davis, Conklin, Smith, and Luce (1996) have pointed out, â€Å"self/target overlap† occurs when we take another’s perspective, and the perceived others becomes more self alike. Kuhnert and Lewis suggested that supervisors‟ perspective taking capacity (how many perspectives they are able to hold simultaneously) is manifested in the degree to which their leadership styles are characterized as transactional versus transformational. The authors argue that managers who take others‟ perspectives as part of their own perspective (Kegan stage 3) are likely to engage in transactions of higher quality, involving â€Å"non-concrete† rewards such as emotional support, mutual respect, and trust. Managers who are unable to effectively integrate others‟ perspectives into their own (Kegan stage 2), are more likely to have transactions of a lower quality with their subordinates, based on â€Å"concrete† rewards such as pay increases, benefits, or other tangible outcomes. 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